Conflict and the Web of Group Affiliation in San Francisco's Chinatown, 1850-1910

Litigation and Subterfuge: Chinese Immigrant Mobilization During the Chinese Exclusion Era

“…In China, the Triad societies were associated with political rebellion and crime. In the United States, they served to oppose local merchant leadership and profited from the organizations' businesses of gambling, opium, and prostitution (Lyman 1974;Ma 1991;Nee and Nee 1973). Although subversive in character, these secret societies provided many of the same benevolent services as family and district associations.…”

“…and railroad construction (Calavita 1984;Jones 1992;Kung 1962;Lyman 1977). The idea of America as the land of opportunity and a need for labor resulted in a benign immigration policy (Curran 1975;Kettner 1978), but Chinese were greeted with hostility by other settlers.…”

The Growth of Ethnic Organizations in the Context of Neighborhood Change: Organizational Ecology in Postwar San Francisco

“…Information regarding organizational size, membership, and type of activity is not available. Moreover, these directories are unlikely to list secret societies established by communities that facilitate participation in the informal economy, protection from discrimination, and promotion of charitable activities (Light 1977;Lyman 1974). City directories are also not ideal for identifying formal organizations that are very small or new.…”

Emerging from the Margins of Historical Consciousness: Chinese Immigrants and the History of American Law

“…Recognition of the importance of racism to the history of Chinese immigrants by the late 1960s did not, however, undermine the continuing vitality of the image of Chinese passivity, "a one-sided image of victimization unrelieved by any analytical accounts of the organization of activity or associational creativity of the Asian victims." 123 True, a few scholars, namely Carl B. Swisher and Konvitz, had pointed out Chinese legal victories. 124 But as late as 1966 Roger Daniels could still observe: "Other immigrant groups were celebrated for what they had accomplished.…”