Composition and Nutrient Content of Elephant (Elephas maximus) Milk

Peters, Jean M.; Maier, R.; Hawthorne, Betty E.; Storvick, Clara A.

doi:10.2307/1379210

Cited by 18 publications

(15 citation statements)

References 17 publications

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“…Total solids % in milk produced by this elephant varied directly with fat levels but averaged 19.7% throughout the monitoring period. This value is similar to an average total solids of 20.8% calculated from three previously published data points [Peters et al, 1972;John and Subramanian, 19911, although Peters et al [1972] also reported a 5-day postpartum milk sample with total solids of 8.27%.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 87%

“…Milk retinol levels (X = 0.46 ? 0.1 pg/ml) convert to a vitamin A level of 1.5 IU/ml (1 IU vitamin A = 0.3 pg retinol), which is threefold higher than a single value of (0.53 IU/ml) reported by Peters et al [1972] for elephant milk. Milk a-tocopherol levels averaged 0.33 ?…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 63%

“…Milk protein values from this elephant (X = 3.4 % 0.3%, n = 10) were also comparable to valued reported for other Asian elephants (% = 4.5 ? 1.3%, n = 7 [Peters et al, 1972;John and Subramanian, 19911). Since the growth of our infant elephant appeared to be normal, compared to a previous calf (Fig.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Relatively little information exists about milk composition during early lactation of Asian elephants. Peters et al [1972] summarized milk data composition from multiple Asian elephants during the first 18 months of lactation and found protein levels varied from 1.9-5.4% (as fed basis); fat levels varied from 0.6-19.0%. John and Subramanian [ 199 11 described the composition of Indian elephant milk (protein 4.4-5.4%; fat 5.8-49%), but did not mention which stage of lactation or how many samples were used to derive the data.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) milk composition during the first 280 days of lactation

Mainka¹,

Cooper²,

Black³

et al. 1994

Zoo Biology

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Milk samples (n = 10) taken during the first 280 days of lactation from one Asian elephant were examined for nutrient composition including total solids, protein, fat, ash, a-tocopherol, and retinol levels. Total solids averaged 19.7 * 2.7% SD (range 15.0-23.3). Percent protein remained fairly stable throughout this portion of lactation and averaged 3.4 t 0.3% (range 3.0-4.0). Ash content averaged 0.54 * 0.03%. Milk fat and fat soluble vitamin levels varied considerably with a suggestion of a cyclic pattern. Fat content of milk averaged 7.6 +-2.6% (range 3.9-12.1); a-tocopheral levels averaged 0.33 +-0.12 pg/ml; and retinol levels averaged 0.46 * 0.1 pg/ml.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 87%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 63%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 2 more Smart Citations

Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) milk composition during the first 280 days of lactation

Mainka¹,

Cooper²,

Black³

et al. 1994

Zoo Biology

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“…This observation may explain in part the PAS staining of the luminal contents of such alveoli and may possibly be correlated with the finding that the sugar content of the milk of the African elephant is much higher during the first 2-3 months of lactation than during the rest of the long lactating period (McCullagh and Widdowson 1970). In the Indian elephant, the sugar levels of the milk appear to be generally high, whereas the lipid concentrations remain relatively low (Peters et al 1972). The strong PAS positivity of the lumen and the cells may also depend on the immunoglobulins (IgA) secreted into the lumen.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 60%

Histo- and cytophysiology of the lactating mammary gland of the African elephant ( Loxodonta africana)

Welsch¹,

Feuerhake²,

Aarde

et al. 1998

Cell and Tissue Research

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The lactating mammary gland of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) has been studied with a panel of morphological techniques focusing on (1) the functional changes during the secretory process, (2) proliferative process [by application of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) immunohistochemistry] and apoptotic phenomena [by use of the TUNEL technique] in the individual lobules, and (3) components of milk and milk-fat-globule membrane. In the lactating gland, the lobules are variably differentiated; within a lobule, however, the alveoli are usually similarly differentiated. The morphology of their alveoli suggests a classification of the lobules into types 1-3. Lobules of type 1 are composed of immature tubular alveoli with mitotic figures and numerous PCNA-positive nuclei; advanced type 1 alveoli contain abundant glycogen and specific secretory granules. Lobules of type 2 are further subdivided. In type 2a lobules, the epithelial cells of the alveoli form tall apical protrusions, which in part are occupied by small lipid droplets and which are pinched off in an apocrine fashion. The number of lysosomes varies considerably. Type 2b is the most common type, with striking basal membrane foldings, abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum cisterns, large Golgi apparatus, numerous mitochondria, lipid droplets, and protein vesicles with 30- to 90-nm-wide casein micelles. The lipid droplets are pinched off with minimal amounts of cytoplasm. Type 2c is composed of alveoli with a cuboidal epithelium and few signs of secretory activity. Increasing expression of peanut-agglutinin-binding sites parallels the maturation and differentiation of the glandular cells. Type 3 lobules are marked by numerous TUNEL-positive nuclei and large lipid droplets and are apparently degenerating structures. Cytokeratin (CK) 14 is usually present in the myoepithelial cells; CK 19 and CK 7 mark ductal and immature alveolar epithelia. Milk protein content varies between 2.6% and 6.3%, and casein micelles range from 35 to 90 nm in diameter. The diameter of intra-alveolar milk fat globules ranges from 5 to 25 micrometer and the membranes bear a filamentous surface coat composed of membrane-anchored mucins; gel-electrophoretic analysis of these mucins from different individuals demonstrates the presence of mucin MUC 1, which is expressed with considerable genetic heterogeneity.

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Variation in the Composition of Milk of Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) Throughout Lactation

Abbondanza

Power

Dickson³

et al. 2012

Zoo Biology

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We investigated milk nutrient composition from three Asian elephant cows over the first 3 years of lactation, including two consecutive lactations in one cow. Body mass gain is presented for three calves during the first year. Milk samples (n = 74) were analyzed for dry matter (DM), fat, crude protein (CP), sugar, ash, calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K); gross energy (GE) was calculated. Concentrations of most nutrients changed over lactation: DM, fat, CP, Ca, P, and GE were positively correlated to calf age; sugar was negatively correlated to calf age. GE doubled between birth (1 kcal/g) and 2 years of age (2 kcal/g). After accounting for calf age, GE, fat, Ca, and P concentrations differed among the cows. Milk composition also differed between two lactations from the same cow. When milk nutrients were expressed on a mg per kcal basis, the pattern changes: CP, Ca, and P remained relatively constant over lactation on a per energy basis. Calf mass quadrupled over the first year of life; mass gain was linear at 0.9 kg/day. Asian elephant milk composition is variable, both across lactations and between cows, complicating efforts to determine representative values for comparative studies and for the formulation of elephant milk formulas. The fact that CP, Ca, and P were all relatively constant when expressed on a per energy basis may be of biological significance. The increase in nutrient density over lactation undoubtedly limits maternal water loss, reducing the volume of milk necessary to support the calf.

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Composition and Nutrient Content of Elephant (Elephas maximus) Milk

Cited by 18 publications

References 17 publications

Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) milk composition during the first 280 days of lactation

Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) milk composition during the first 280 days of lactation

Histo- and cytophysiology of the lactating mammary gland of the African elephant ( Loxodonta africana)

Variation in the Composition of Milk of Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) Throughout Lactation

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