Variation in the Composition of Milk of Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) Throughout Lactation

Abstract

We investigated milk nutrient composition from three Asian elephant cows over the first 3 years of lactation, including two consecutive lactations in one cow. Body mass gain is presented for three calves during the first year. Milk samples (n = 74) were analyzed for dry matter (DM), fat, crude protein (CP), sugar, ash, calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K); gross energy (GE) was calculated. Concentrations of most nutrients changed over lactation: DM, fat, CP, Ca, P, and GE were positively correlated to calf age; sugar was negatively correlated to calf age. GE doubled between birth (1 kcal/g) and 2 years of age (2 kcal/g). After accounting for calf age, GE, fat, Ca, and P concentrations differed among the cows. Milk composition also differed between two lactations from the same cow. When milk nutrients were expressed on a mg per kcal basis, the pattern changes: CP, Ca, and P remained relatively constant over lactation on a per energy basis. Calf mass quadrupled over the first year of life; mass gain was linear at 0.9 kg/day. Asian elephant milk composition is variable, both across lactations and between cows, complicating efforts to determine representative values for comparative studies and for the formulation of elephant milk formulas. The fact that CP, Ca, and P were all relatively constant when expressed on a per energy basis may be of biological significance. The increase in nutrient density over lactation undoubtedly limits maternal water loss, reducing the volume of milk necessary to support the calf.

Proximate composition of milk of the bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) in comparison to other African bovids and to hand‐rearing formulas

“…Bongo calves receive a milk diet that is essentially invariant throughout the first 9 months of life, implying either that their proportional nutrient requirements (relative to energy intake) change little over this time or that supplemental solid foods available to calves can compensate for any nutritional shortcomings in milk. It is interesting to note that milk protein content, when protein is expressed on a per energy basis, is often relatively unchanged over lactation, as demonstrated in Asian elephants [Abbondanza et al, ] and common marmosets [Power et al, ]. In reindeer milk, protein concentration increases from about 8% to 10% between 3 and 12 months [Gjøstein et al, ], but protein per energy is constant at 28% of GE or 48 mg/kcal.…”

“…A protein energy percentage of 20–30% appears to typify most other African bovids, with the exception of the dorcas gazelle and some of the Hippotragini. This 20–30% range also characterizes most other large eutherian herbivores, including most Perissodactyls (horses, zebras, and rhinos), Proboscideans (elephants), north temperate bovids and cervids, and giraffe [Oftedal, ], although somewhat lower protein (16–19% of GE) may occur in the Przewalski horse [Oftedal and Jennes, ], plains zebra [Oftedal and Jennes, ], Asian elephant [Abbondanza et al, ], and rhinoceros (M. Power, unpublished data). It is not certain whether such differences among African bovids and among other large herbivores correlate to rate of offspring growth, proportions of various proteins in milk, protein limitations in maternal diets, or other developmental, physiological or environmental constraints.…”

Zoo elephant research: contributions to conservation of captive and free‐ranging species

“…Longitudinal and repeated studies of milk composition in elephants have been possible because of captive-breeding programmes and access to zoo animals. Studies suggest component changes to milk composition during lactation that correlate with calf developmental needs (Abbondanza et al, 2013). As well, unique carbohydrates (Uemura et al, 2006;Osthoff et al, 2008), lipids (Osthoff et al, 2007), and the presence of high levels of glucosamine (Takatsu et al, 2017) have been identified in elephant milk.…”

Elephant’s breast milk contains large amounts of glucosamine

“…So, we used mare’s milk as a reference during the LC/MS assay of elephant’s milk. d: days after delivery, SD: standard deviation, NT: not tested.), which did not differ from previously reported data [1], and then analyzed the AA levels of the four elephant’s breast milk samples by HPLC. In the 95-min mode, which is often used for food analysis, the chart for Tem’s milk exhibited a twin peak composed of an Ile peak and an UKP and contained similar levels of all AA to those reported previously [9], whereas these two peaks had fused together in the chart for Zuze’s milk (Fig.…”

“…These are supposed to be caused by problems with nutrition, including overnutrition, similar to the bone fractures seen in Great Dane puppies [8]; exercise; the amount of sunshine received; or genetic factors [11]. As far as we know, the nutritional balance of the milk substitutes that are currently supplied to elephant calves does not differ from that of elephant’s breast milk [1]; however, analytical data of the milk were few on minerals, vitamins or other functional components. As we were expecting the birth of an Asian elephant, we carried out a compositional analysis of elephant’s breast milk to develop a novel substitute.…”