Asian elephant (<i>Elephas maximus</i>) milk composition during the first 280 days of lactation

Mainka, Susan A.; Cooper, Robert; Black, Sandra R.; Dierenfeld, Ellen S.

doi:10.1002/zoo.1430130412

Cited by 11 publications

(20 citation statements)

References 3 publications

(4 reference statements)

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“…Nevertheless, there was a general trend for fat and CP percentages to increase, and water and sugar percentages to decrease, over the first year of calf life (Table and Fig ). This is consistent with trends previously observed in milk ( n = 30) obtained from wild African elephants from 10 to 36 months postpartum [McCullagh and Widdowson, ], and in milk ( n = 7) obtained from working Asian elephants from 2 to 18 months [Simon, ], but not in milk ( n = 10) collected from zoo Asian elephants from 0.5 to 9 months [Mainka et al., ]. Other reports on small numbers of elephant milk samples [e.g., Doremus, ; Osthoff et al., ; Peters et al., ] include considerable compositional variation but no clear trends over lactation stage, perhaps because sample numbers were too low.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 89%

“…The proximate composition of elephant milk was first studied in the 19th century [Doremus, ]. A number of constituents have been examined in African and/or Asian elephant milks, including casein micelles, casein and whey protein fractions, amino acid patterns, MFG size distribution, fatty acid patterns, organic acids, mono‐, di‐, and oligosaccharides, macrominerals, and some fat‐ and water‐soluble vitamins [Kunz et al., ; Mainka et al., ; McCullagh and Widdowson, ; Osthoff et al., ; Peters et al., ; Simon, ; Uemura et al., ; Welsh, 1998]. However, little is known about how elephant milk changes over the course of lactation; available longitudinal studies over the course of lactation are both limited in scope and inconsistent [Mainka et al., ; McCullagh and Widdowson, ; Peters et al., ; Simon, ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Variation in the Composition of Milk of Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) Throughout Lactation

Abbondanza

Power

Dickson³

et al. 2012

Zoo Biology

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We investigated milk nutrient composition from three Asian elephant cows over the first 3 years of lactation, including two consecutive lactations in one cow. Body mass gain is presented for three calves during the first year. Milk samples (n = 74) were analyzed for dry matter (DM), fat, crude protein (CP), sugar, ash, calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K); gross energy (GE) was calculated. Concentrations of most nutrients changed over lactation: DM, fat, CP, Ca, P, and GE were positively correlated to calf age; sugar was negatively correlated to calf age. GE doubled between birth (1 kcal/g) and 2 years of age (2 kcal/g). After accounting for calf age, GE, fat, Ca, and P concentrations differed among the cows. Milk composition also differed between two lactations from the same cow. When milk nutrients were expressed on a mg per kcal basis, the pattern changes: CP, Ca, and P remained relatively constant over lactation on a per energy basis. Calf mass quadrupled over the first year of life; mass gain was linear at 0.9 kg/day. Asian elephant milk composition is variable, both across lactations and between cows, complicating efforts to determine representative values for comparative studies and for the formulation of elephant milk formulas. The fact that CP, Ca, and P were all relatively constant when expressed on a per energy basis may be of biological significance. The increase in nutrient density over lactation undoubtedly limits maternal water loss, reducing the volume of milk necessary to support the calf.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 89%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Variation in the Composition of Milk of Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) Throughout Lactation

Abbondanza

Power

Dickson³

et al. 2012

Zoo Biology

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“…Unique aspects of elephant milk have been described, including small sized and highly saturated lipid globules [21,22], and the presence of elevated concentrations of lactose-derived oligosaccharides [23], as well as high levels of glucosamine [24]. Nonetheless, only limited data exist concerning milk nutrient composition of captive elephants [23,[25][26][27][28], with almost none from animals in a native habitat [21,22].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Milk Composition of Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) in a Natural Environment in Myanmar during Late Lactation

Dierenfeld

Han

Mar

et al. 2020

Animals

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The nutritional content of milk from free-living Asian elephants has not previously been reported, despite being vital for better management of captive populations. This study analyzed both milk composition and consumed plant species of Asian elephants managed in their natural environment in Myanmar. Longitudinal samples (n = 36) were obtained during both the wet and the dry season from six mature females in mid to late lactation in 2016 and 2017. Milk composition averaged 82.44% water, with 17.56% total solids containing 5.23% protein, 15.10% fat, 0.87% ash, and 0.18 µg/mL vitamin E. Solids and protein increased with lactation month. Total protein in milk was higher during the wet vs. the dry season. Observed factors linked with maternal (age, parity, size and origin) and calf traits (sex) had significant associations with milk nutrient levels. Primary forages consumed contained moderate protein and fiber. Higher dietary protein during the wet season (11–25%) compared to the dry season (6–19%) may be linked with increased milk protein observed. Our results call for further field studies of milk and diet composition, over entire seasons/lactation periods, and across maternal and calf traits, to improve feeding management, with an overall goal of maximized health and survival.

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“…44 Creating appropriate and adequate formulas for orphaned calves has been difficult. Between nursing sessions, they often sleep.…”

Section: Preventive Medicinementioning

confidence: 99%

Proboscidea

Wiedner¹

2015

Fowler's Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, Volume 8

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Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) milk composition during the first 280 days of lactation

Cited by 11 publications

References 3 publications

Variation in the Composition of Milk of Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) Throughout Lactation

Variation in the Composition of Milk of Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) Throughout Lactation

Milk Composition of Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) in a Natural Environment in Myanmar during Late Lactation

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