Comparative study of afterpulsing behavior and models in single photon counting avalanche photo diode detectors

Abstract

Single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detectors, have a great importance in fields like quantum key distribution, laser ranging, florescence microscopy, etc. Afterpulsing is a non-ideal behavior of SPADs that adversely affects any application that measures the number or timing of detection events. Several studies based on a few individual detectors, derived distinct mathematical models from semiconductor physics perspectives. With a consistent testing procedure and statistically large data sets, we show that different individual detectors - even if identical in type, make, brand, etc. - behave according to fundamentally different mathematical models. Thus, every detector must be characterized individually and it is wrong to draw universal conclusions about the physical meaning behind these models. We also report the presence of high-order afterpulses that are not accounted for in any of the standard models.

Numerical Model of SPAD-Based Direct Time-of-Flight Flash LIDAR CMOS Image Sensors

“…From a statistical point of view, crosstalk and afterpulsing effects create correlated events that are non-trivial to be efficiently modeled. Regarding afterpulsing in particular, probabilistic models and characterization techniques which may be employed in the simulation process have been proposed [ 35 , 36 ], even though the universality of other approaches is questioned in the work from Ziarkash et al [ 37 ]. Therefore, our strategy will be toward the investigation of the most suited approach which provides statistically reliable results with a computationally efficient implementation.…”

Fluorescence Fluctuation Techniques for the Investigation of Structure-Function Relationships of G-Protein-Coupled Receptors

“…Correlating the signal to itself can remove the spurious events and compensate for the afterpulsing effect. Importantly, individual detectors of the same brand, type, and make require fundamentally different mathematical models to correct for these effects and thus universal models cannot be generated and each detector must be characterized individually [178]. Fukushima et al applied a two-detector approach to N&B analysis called TD-N&B to correct for detector artifacts when they measured the dynamics of glucocorticoid receptor dimerization [179].…”

Accurate Detection of Arbitrary Photon Statistics

“…Furthermore, the effects of dark counts and afterpulses are virtually eliminated by operating the detector in pulse regime with the repetition rate below approx. 5 MHz [54,55]. The period between individual measurement runs can be ultimately decreased to be only slightly longer than the recovery time of the constituent single-photon detectors, as far as afterpulses are negligible or fast decaying like in the case of superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors [43,56,57].…”