Community violence and African American male health outcomes: An integrative review of literature

Abstract

The morbidity and mortality rates of African American men consistently rank among the lowest across all groups in the United States. African American men have one of the highest mortality rates for heart disease, cancer, stroke unintentional injuries and homicide (Gilbert et al., 2016). The leading cause of death in African American men age 24-34 years old is homicide (CDC, 2011). A majority of the health disparities experienced by African American men are the result of socioeconomic disadvantage, racism and residing in resource-poor communities (Bharmal et al., 2011). With disproportionate access to care and community stressors, there is a critical need to explore the health of African American men in high violent neighbourhoods. Many African American men live in disadvantaged communities marked by strenuous poverty, residential instability, joblessness, violent crime and educational shortages (Simning, Wijngaarden, & Conwell, 2012). African American men are also more likely not to have regular care, live in food deserts, work in unsafe environments and engage in unhealthy behaviours like tobacco use and alcohol consumption (Metzl, 2013). Dwelling in these communities, leave African American men at risk for adverse experiences that impact their health behaviours and outcomes. Community violence is an important consideration of the physical environment. Community violence is characterised by physical assault, sexual assault, homicide, mugging, gang violence, unnecessary force by authorities, theft and family violence (Walling, Eriksson, Putman, & Foy, 2011). Additionally, community violence exposure has been linked to higher rates of weapon involvement especially in African Americans, potentially due to self-defence, fear of violence or association with delinquency and aggression (Shetgiri, Boots, Lin, & Cheng, 2016). In particular, gun violence disproportionately impacts communities with social and economic inequities (Santilli et al., 2017). Inequities in communities of colour are due to structural racism such as segregation. Communities plagued with

States should use Medicaid to support violence intervention efforts

“…For example, survivors have an increased likelihood of misusing alcohol and drugs as a way of coping and/or self-treating trauma. 8 Sadly, this may even create generational effects, as children of survivors have a greater likelihood of engaging in violent behavior and/or experiencing posttraumatic stress disorder themselves. 9 Taken together, these factors culminate in what is commonly referred to as a "revolving door phenomenon" of community violence.…”

“…The aftermath of violent injury commonly generates various subsequent risk factors for repeat injuries. For example, survivors have an increased likelihood of misusing alcohol and drugs as a way of coping and/or self-treating trauma 8 . Sadly, this may even create generational effects, as children of survivors have a greater likelihood of engaging in violent behavior and/or experiencing posttraumatic stress disorder themselves 9 .…”

Physical and Mental Health Outcomes of Black Emerging Adults with Community Violence Exposure: An Integrative Review

“…For example, Wright and Colleagues (2017) synthesized the literature on physical health outcomes in youth with CVE and found associations with several adverse conditions like asthma and increased weight. In support of Wright and Colleagues (2017), Thomas and Colleagues (2020) explored CVE’s impact on health outcomes in Black males of all ages and found they were more likely to have traumatic stress, sexually transmitted infections, inflammatory reactions, violence perpetration, and substance use. A third review by Motley and Colleagues (2017) examined risk taking behaviors of Black emerging adults with CVE and found that CVE was associated with substance use.…”

Social Determinants of Health and Depression among African American Adults: A Scoping Review of Current Research

“…Pieterse et al [11] and Williams and William-Morris [12] focused on mental health more broadly, while additional reviews focused on the association between discrimination and depressive symptoms in Black men [13] and the association between depressive symptoms and perceived discrimination [14]. Further, Watkins et al [15], Ward and Mengesha [16], and Plowden et al [17] discussed risk factors for depression in African American men, including several SDOH, and more recent studies have highlighted the negative impact of police encounters [18] and community violence on African American male mental health [19]. A different perspective from Reed et al [20] explored social work research on SDOH as protective factors regarding African American suicide.…”