Cognitive theories of early gender development.

Abstract

The contribution of cognitive perspectives (cognitive-developmental theory and gender schema theory) to a contemporary understanding of gender development is evaluated. Recent critiques of cognitive approaches are discussed and empirical evidence is presented to counter these critiques. Because of the centrality of early gender development to the cognitive perspective, the latest research is reviewed on how infants and toddlers discriminate the sexes and learn the attributes correlated with sex. The essence of cognitive approaches-emphasis on motivational consequences of gender concepts; the active, self-initiated view of development; and focus on developmental patterns-is highlighted and contrasted with social-cognitive views. The value of cognitive theories to the field is illustrated, and recommendations are made concerning how to construct comprehensive, integrative perspectives of gender development.How individuals develop a "gendered" self and gender-typed differentiation has intrigued researchers of human behavior for as long as social development has been a field of empirical study. Initially, observations of clear gender typing in children as young as 5 years old led researchers to examine how socialization processes in the home might contribute to this early acquisition of gender-linked behavior (e.g., Sears, Maccoby, & Levin, 1957). In 1966, several important theories of gender development, including Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental approach and Mischel's social learning approach, were outlined in Maccoby's book on the development of sex differences. In the mid-1970s, a groundbreaking book by Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) broadened the discussion about the etiology of sex differences and gender typing and questioned the significance of socialization processes, thereby invigorating the field and generating considerable controversy. In the 1980s, Huston (1983Huston ( , 1985 called for researchers to develop a more integrative, comprehensive approach to the study of gender development. This integration was to include consideration of the many facets of gender that needed investigation, such as concepts, identity, preferences, and behavior, as well as a wide variety of factors that influence the development of these facets, including biology, cognitions, and social influences. This idea resonated with gender researchers and has been a driving force in the field ever since, leading to an expansion of theoretical approaches and the inclusion of multiple measures in empirical studies.Recently, Bussey and Bandura (1999) presented a socialcognitive theory (SCT) of gender development and differentiation. This theory represents a particular view of how gender-related behavior is acquired and maintained, based on contemporary social learning theory (Bandura, 1986). Because the theory has now integrated cognitive constructs and makes reference to biological underpinnings and sociostructural factors, Bussey and Bandura described their theory as comprehensive and integrative, consistent with Huston's (1983) proposal,...

Beyond Discrete Categories: Studying Multiracial, Intersex, and Transgender Children Will Strengthen Basic Developmental Science

“…Not surprisingly, therefore, much of the work with these children as participants has focused on clinically relevant questions (e.g., rates of psychopathology among these groups), rather than questions about basic developmental science (though see Zucker et al, 1999). Even when the existence of these children is mentioned in reviews of gender development (e.g., Martin, Ruble, & Szkrybalo, 2002;Ruble, Martin, & BEYOND DISCRETE CATEGORIES Berenbaum, 2006), their experiences rarely make it into broader discussions of gender development (Liben, 2016). This separation occurs despite the fact that focusing on these less common populations may be especially insightful to our theory development.…”

“…In some ongoing work, we are testing exactly this question in a group of transgender preschoolers (Fast & Olson, under review). Including these children in such a study could provide convergent or divergent evidence contributing to ongoing theoretical debates on this issue (Bandura & Bussey, 2004;Martin et al, 2002).…”

Animation and Socialization Process: Gender Role Portrayal on Cartoon Network

“…It is already argued that media is not the sole agent in the socialization process, however it is recognized that the media play a significant role in children's socialization process. Through the social learning theory, it is commonly believed that children's beliefs, social behaviors and general ideas about gender and gender roles in society are usually molded and shaped by the gender role portrayals in the animated cartoons (Martin et al 2002). Social learning theory suggests that children start learning smoothly and steadily from the program they watch on media and especially on television.…”

Male more than female infants imitate propulsive motion

“…Further, even without a model, boys exhibited more propulsive movements than girls, such as hitting, punching, and gun play. The predominant interpretation has been that boys imitated the male model's aggression because they understood conceptually that they are male and males behave aggressively (Bandura & Bussey, 1999;Kohlberg, 1966;Martin, Ruble, & Szkrybalo, 2002;Zosuls et al, 2009). An alternative, but not mutually exclusive interpretation however, is that boys find males' propulsive movements more appealing than females' movements.…”