Children can create a new emotion category through a process of elimination

Two signals of social rank: Prestige and dominance are associated with distinct nonverbal displays.

“…Participants completed a single trial in which they were randomly assigned to select either the most prestigious target or the most dominant target. This method was used to prevent participants from reaching decisions through a process of elimination (DiGirolamo & Russell, 2017; Nelson et al, 2018). More specifically, participants assigned to the prestige condition were asked: “Please select the image of the person who is likely to be a leader because he/she is accomplished, admired, and possesses useful knowledge and expertise.” Participants assigned to the dominance condition were asked: “Please select the person who is likely to be a leader because he/she is willing to use aggression and intimidation to get his/her way.” These items were generated on the basis of theoretical definitions of prestige and dominance (see Cheng et al, 2010; Henrich & Gil-White, 2001), and were found to yield high recognition rates in a pilot study that asked 237 participants not included in the present research to identify the stimuli used in Study 2 with these two items (67% for prestige, 82% for dominance; Witkower, Tracy, Hill, et al, 2019).…”

“…Participants completed a single trial in which they were randomly assigned to select either the most prestigious target or the most dominant target. This method was used to prevent participants from reaching decisions through a process of elimination (DiGirolamo & Russell, 2017;Nelson et al, 2018). More specifically, participants assigned to the prestige condition were asked: "Please select the image of the person who is likely to be a leader because he/she is accomplished, admired, and possesses useful knowledge and expertise."…”

Do Preverbal Infants Understand Discrete Facial Expressions of Emotion?

“…However, one clear limitation to this research is that children and adults have considerable experience with facial expressions and emotion labels. In particular, emotion labels and concepts are always implicitly available in participants' minds (Lindquist & Gendron, 2013), and participants may draw on this knowledge during the testing session (N. L. Nelson et al, 2018;Ruba et al, 2018). To address this problem, some studies have examined adults with various neurological deficiencies (e.g., Lindquist et al, 2014;Nook et al, 2015) or presented healthy adults with unfamiliar, nonhuman faces (e.g., Doyle & Lindquist, 2018;Fugate, Gouzoules, & Barrett, 2010).…”

“…For example, adults remember facial expressions as “angrier” or “happier” depending on whether the expressions were paired with the word “angry” or “happy” (Halberstadt & Niedenthal, 2001). In addition, the inclusion of emotion labels in emotion categorization tasks improves children’s and adults’ performance (e.g., Camras & Allison, 1985; Carroll & Russell, 1996; N. L. Nelson et al, 2018; N.…”

“…However, one clear limitation to this research is that children and adults have considerable experience with facial expressions and emotion labels. In particular, emotion labels and concepts are always implicitly available in participants’ minds (Lindquist & Gendron, 2013), and participants may draw on this knowledge during the testing session (N. L. Nelson et al, 2018; Ruba et al, 2018).…”