Intrusive parenting has been traditionally considered a negative parenting style and includes actions that are overly directive and controlling of children's behavior. However, current research aims to contextualize this parenting behavior. This study examined the relation between intrusive parenting and early childhood behavior problems or emotion regulation, as well as the moderating role of race/ethnicity and developmental delay. Participants (n = 511; 47.4% male) were part of a larger, longitudinal Early Head Start study, entitled Baby FACES, with a racially and ethnically diverse sample (40.1% White, 18.7% Black, and 41.2% Hispanic). Behavior problems and developmental delay were assessed via parent report, while parent intrusiveness and emotion regulation were rated by observers. More use of intrusive parenting at age 2 was associated with greater behavior problems and less emotion regulation at age 3. However, this relation was moderated by race/ethnicity and developmental level. Greater intrusiveness was related to increased behavior problems and poorer emotion regulation for White and Hispanic/ Latino families; they were unrelated in Black families. Similarly, although intrusive parenting and behavior problems were positively associated at all developmental levels, the relation was strongest for children with typical development. Further, fewer maternal risk factors, being female, and being Hispanic/Latino were associated with higher emotion regulation, and more risk factors were associated with more behavior problems. These findings highlight the importance of considering how a child's context and development interact with parenting style. Children may benefit from clinical assessment and intervention that considers this intersectionality.
The prevalence of autism is rising, a dynamic attributed to numerous explanations (e.g. better diagnostic practices, decreased stigma). As this neurodevelopmental disability increases in visibility, disparities in its diagnostic rate grow. Female and Black populations in the United States have historically lower prevalence, are diagnosed later, are more likely to have co-occurring intellectual disability, and experience exclusion from research. Autistic Black girls are effectively invisible in the literature. To combat this exclusion, this narrative review discusses intersectionality theory and how it may be used to provide integrated models that are inclusive toward diverse gender, ability, and racial/ethnic backgrounds. Systemic inequalities, including prenatal care and misdiagnosis, disproportionately negatively impact the quality of care available to female and Black autistic populations. The authors recommend that research include autistic populations with co-occurring intellectual disability, include a diagnostic evaluation as part of protocols, and clinically, universal screening and improved provider competence and confidence in working with diverse autistic populations. Lay abstract Although the prevalence of autism has been rising in recent years, disparities in diagnosis still remain. Female and Black populations in the United States are diagnosed later, are more likely to have an intellectual disability, and are excluded from research as well as services designed for autistic individuals. Autistic Black girls are effectively invisible in the current scientific literature. Intersectional theory, which looks at a person as a whole, examines models that are inclusive toward diverse gender, ability, and racial/ethnic backgrounds. This theory may be a useful approach to clinical and research work with autism so that practitioners may be most effective for the whole population of autistic people. The authors recommend research focusing on inclusion of autistic populations with intellectual disability and research studies that include evaluations as part of the procedure. Clinically, the authors recommend a focus on screening all young children for autism and improving provider knowledge in working with diverse autistic populations.
Developmental delays (DD) are missed early childhood developmental milestones in cognitive, motoric or linguistic domains. DD associated with behaviour problems may compound to impact parenting. This study investigated whether DD would moderate the relation between behaviour problems and parenting in families of toddlers. Data were drawn from an Early Head Start (n = 564) sample. The Ages and Stages Questionnaire-Third Edition measured developmental status at age 2 (typically developing, in a monitoring zone, or having a DD), behaviour problems were assessed at age 2, and supportive and negative parenting at age 3. Developmental delay moderated the relationship between behaviour problems and supportive parenting such that greater behaviour problems were unrelated to parental supportiveness for children with DD, while greater behaviour problems led to less parental supportiveness for typically developing children. These findings suggest distinct developmental processes, with parental supportiveness acting as potentially protective for children with DD.
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