Challenge and threat motivation: effects on superficial and elaborative information processing

Abstract

This paper integrates the motivational states of challenge and threat within a dual processing perspective. Previous research has demonstrated that individuals experience a challenge state when individuals have sufficient resources to cope with the demands of a task (Blascovich et al., 1993). Because the experience of resource availability has been shown to be associated with superficial processing (Garcia-Marques and Mackie, 2007), we tested the hypothesis that challenge is associated with superficial processing in two persuasion experiments. Experiment 1 revealed that inducing attitudes of participants in a challenge state was not sensitive to the quality of arguments presented. Experiment 2 demonstrated that the effect occurs even when task engagement, manipulated by the presence (vs. the absence) of a task observer (Blascovich et al., 1993), is high. The implications of these results for the biopsychosocial model model and the cognitive and motivational literature are discussed.

Stress experience and performance during an oral exam: the role of self-efficacy, threat appraisals, anxiety, and cortisol

“…In line with Campbell and Ehlert (2012), who stated that only 25% of existing studies identify significant correlations between cortisol concentrations and emotional stress variables, we found no evidence that the changes in both stress responses were related. An explanation for the independence of anxiety and cortisol may be derived from studies on appraisal emotion theories and hormonal regulation mechanisms, which suggest that either stress response may be associated with different cognitive processes (Bandura, 1997;de Kloet, Joels, & Holsboer, 2005;Fonseca et al, 2014;Pekrun et al, 2007;Putwain et al, 2013;Wolf, 2006). In terms of information processing, a high pre-exam cortisol concentration signifies high levels of alertness and arousal, which helps the students to deal with unexpected questions throughout the exam.…”

“…While several theories and theoretical models have been developed to conceptualize the interplay of beliefs, stress responses and performance in the context of examinations each model puts an emphasis on different processes. For instance, the control-value theory of achievement emotions (e.g., Pekrun, 2006;Pekrun, Frenzel, Goetz, & Perry, 2007) highlights the importance of control and value appraisals while the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat (e.g., Blascovich, 2008;Fonseca et al, 2014) specifies under which conditions appraisals of threat and challenge are related to neuroendocrine stress responses, which in turn can differentially affect performance. However, control-value theory neither specifies how exam-related stress responses may develop over time nor addresses the role of threat appraisals in this context.…”

“…Alternatively, some researchers interpret non-significant relationship between performance and anxiety levels/the cortisol concentrations in light of the Yerkes-Dodson Law (Diamond, 2005;Hanoch & Vitouch, 2004). With regard to absolute levels of either stress measure an inverted U-shaped relation with performance may be expected: High levels of examrelated anxiety may hinder performance, while low to moderate levels are considered functionally activating as they go along with awareness for adequate preparation and deeper information processing which is conducive to performance (Fonseca et al, 2014). Pre-exam levels of anxiety or cortisol which are slightly above average may thus be unrelated to performance, as in the current study.…”

“…A number of laboratory studies jointly assessed appraisals, affective and/or physiological stress correlates in a test situation, for instance when participants performed mental tasks or a social-evaluative speech task (e.g., Fonseca, Blascovich, & Marques, 2014;Pruessner, Gaab, Hellhammer, Lintz, Schommer, & Kirschbaum, 1997;Tomaka, Blascovich, Kibler, & Ernst, 1997). In contrast, previous research on the effects of SE in the context of real-life exams focused either on cortisol or self-reported anxiety (Campbell & Ehlert, 2012;Dickerson & Kemeny, 2004;Schönfeld et al, 2017).…”

Seeing the Big Picture: Size Perception Is More Context Sensitive in the Presence of Others

“…According to these authors’ view, our experimental situation would promote challenge (and not threat) because individuals have the cognitive resources to address the task. A challenged state is associated with superficial holistic processing [ 22 ] and could thus account for the observed effects. However, this hypothesis, which is definitely worthy of further testing, is less parsimonious than an assumption of increased context sensitivity.…”