An International Perspective on the Barriers to the Advancement of Women Managers

Abstract

Bien que le pourcentage de femmes salariees augmente dans la plupart des pays, leur accession au niveau cadre est anonnalement modcste et le nombre occupant des postes i i hautes responsabilites reste negligeable presque partout. Cette rkalite se retrouve dans les cultures occidentale et orientale. dans les systkmes communiste, socialiste et capitaliste et a la fois dans les pays kconomiquement developpis et en voi de developpement. II apparait A I'examen que la sous-representation, la sous-utilisation et la rtpartition biaisie des femmes cadres ne sont pas des faits accessoires et ne relhent pas du hasard. mais plut6t de la culture dans son ensemble, d'obstacles renvoyant a I'education, de restrictions legales et de pratiques corporatistes.Although the percentage of employed women is increasing in most countries, the number in management remains disproportionately low. and the number holding executive positions remains negligible almost everywhere. This pattern holds across oriental and occidental cultures, across communist, socialist, and capitalist systems, and among both economically developed and developing countries. Evidence suggests that the under-representation, under-utilisation, and skewed distribution of women managers is neither coincidental nor random, but rather a function of systemic cultural sanctions, educational barriers, legal restrictions, and corporate practices.

A few good women at the top: The China case

“…Adler (1993) noted that a male-dominated organizational culture can become one of the barriers that blocks women's upward mobility. Women are often denied access to 'good old boys' clubs.…”

Mastering developmental transitions in young and middle adulthood: The interplay of openness to experience and traditional gender ideology on women's self-efficacy and subjective well-being.

“…There are systematic differences 9 between men and women in occupational patterns. For example, despite identical qualifications, 10 women are more likely than men to occupy low-status jobs (Adler, 1993 force by encouraging them to "stay in their place" (Bem & Bem, 1970). Accordingly, our results 1 also suggest that women with a need to approach new challenges show an increase in self-2 efficacy during the transition from high school to college or work when they reject traditional 3 gender ideology.…”

25 Years On: Reflecting on the Past and Looking to the Future in Gender and Management Research

“…Alban- Metcalfe, 1984;Burke and McKeen, 1994;Burke, Rothstein and Bristor, 1995;Davidson and Cooper, 1992;Gutek and Larwood, 1987;Hammond and Holton, 1991;Nicholson and West, 1988;Rosen, Miguel and Pierce, 1989;Tharenou, Latimer and Conroy, 1994), experience of career barriers (e.g. Adler, 1993;Coe, 1992;Hansard Society Commission, 1990;Marshall, 1984;Oakley, 2000;Povall, 1984) and leadership behaviours (Davidson and Cooper, 1987;Donnell and Hall, 1980;Ferrario, 1991;Loden, 1985;Rosener, 1990) with the explicit aim of achieving 'gender justice' through the removal of gender-based barriers to career success. Through this literature, women's voices thus began to be included in some organizational theory and research.…”