A review of major factors influencing plant responses to recreation impacts

Abstract

/ This article reviews some of the more important factors found to influence the susceptibility of plants to trampling impacts associated with recreational use of natural areas. A three-way interaction mediates plant responses to impacts: plant x environment x stress level(s). Plant responses vary in part according to the genetic constitution of the plant, life and growth form, the adaptive flexibility of the plant, and anatomical differences inherent to growth habit and morphology. Other factors that influence plant sensitivities to impacts are the habitat environments in which plants grow, since a number of conditions such as moisture excesses or deficiencies, nitrogen or oxygen starvation, late frosts, etc., cause physiological injury and may increase plant sensitivity to impacts. Among the environmental factors that may increase or lessen plant sensitivities to impacts are soil moisture levels, canopy density, elevation, aspect, microclimate, soil drainage, texture, fertility and productivity. Seasonal influences also bear consideration since environmental changes and phenological and physiological events are mediated by time of year. Stresses are caused by both direct and indirect forms of impact and vary according to season of use, frequency and amount of use, and the type of activity. These interactions are further complicated by evidence that inter-and intraspecific competition, antagonism, and commensalism may influence differences in the sensitivity of plant communities to impacts.Recreational use of natural areas causes ecological change. Very little is know about the long-term biological effects of such change; however, in a comparison of the ecological consequence of fire, grazing, and recreation, Cole (1981) has characterized recreation impacts as localized but severe. The magnitude of change is related to the amour of use, the areal extent of use, the length of time use has occurred, and the type of ecosystem. The importance of these changes is difficult to predict since this branch of impact ecology has dealt with this matter for only a comparatively short period of time. According to some investigators, severely impacted areas in alpine, subalpine, arid and semiarid ecosystems may require fifty to hundreds of years to recover (Stohlgren 1982, Reid 1979, Willard and Marr 1970. The importance of these changes also depends upon point of view since it relates to management objectives set by those responsible for the management of natural areas and the preservation and amenity values attached to these areas.The weight of evidence suggests that factors which give balance to ecosystem organization are highly sensitive to minimal disturbance and stress levels. Among the more damaging effects of trampling reported to date is the destruction of endangered, rare, and critically rare plant species (Hamilton 1983), loss of both biological and physical integrity of the impacted

Trilhas e seu papel ecológico: o que temos aprendido e quais as perspectivas para a restauração de ecossistemas?

“…A abertura e uso de trilhas, assim como outros impactos antrópicos, provocam variações de temperatura, exposição direta do solo à radiação solar e aumento do grau de exposição aos ventos (Whittaker 1975, Kuss 1986, Tabarelli et al 2012. No caso das trilhas, também alteram a estrutura física do solo, principalmente por meio da compactação e erosão, o que leva ao aumento do escoamento superficial e à redução do seu conteúdo de água, matéria orgânica e nutrientes (Kuss 1986, Marion & Cole 1996, Wallin & Harden 1996, Magro 1999.…”

“…No caso das trilhas, também alteram a estrutura física do solo, principalmente por meio da compactação e erosão, o que leva ao aumento do escoamento superficial e à redução do seu conteúdo de água, matéria orgânica e nutrientes (Kuss 1986, Marion & Cole 1996, Wallin & Harden 1996, Magro 1999. Nesse sentido, a alteração do ambiente edáfico pode resultar em importantes mudanças na composição das espécies da flora e da fauna do solo (Duffey 1975).…”

“…A frequência de uso das trilhas, bem como o regime de manutenção dessas e a vulnerabilidade da vegetação, são fatores determinantes da intensidade do seu impacto sobre a vegetação (Cole 1978, Roovers et al 2004. A implantação e uso de trilhas gera modificações no seu ambiente de ocorrência e áreas adjacentes, como aumento da compactação e erosão do solo, perda de cobertura vegetal, alterações na composição, diversidade e estrutura das comunidades vegetais e, ainda, perturbações à fauna (Liddle 1975, Cole 1978, Kuss 1986, Boucher et al 1991, Fonseca Filho et al 2011.…”

As, Sb and Hg distribution and pollution sources in the roadside soil and dust around Kamikochi, Chubu Sangaku National Park, Japan

“…In famous alpine tourist spots, disturbances in the local ecosystems caused by excessive amounts of visitors are becoming more and more serious. For example, the destruction of alpine flora and fauna (Kuss, 1986;Kawano, 1999;Ida and Ozeki, 2000), the pollution of rivers by wastewater (Ue, 1997) and the scattering of trash (Kurose, 1995) are well known problems. Moreover, deforestation and the collecting of sand to protect visitors against calamities at construction sites are also known problems (Iwata, 1999).…”

Padrões florísticos do componente arbóreo sob interferência de trilhas em um trecho de Floresta Ombrófila Densa de Transição em São Paulo, SP, Brasil

“…Roncero-Siles (2003) descreveu os impactos das trilhas sobre a vegetação como sendo i) diretos, pelo dano mecânico causado pela presença antrópica; e ii) indiretos, pelas mudanças nas propriedades físicas e químicas do solo, como o aumento da sua compactação. Em relação a isso, Kuss (1986) mencionou que alterações na intensidade de uso, drenagem do solo e microclima são os fatores que mais afetam o desenvolvimento e a fisiologia das plantas. Boucher et al (1991) ressaltaram a baixa quantidade de estudos do impacto humano em trilhas, principalmente em florestas tropicais.…”