A review of harmful algal blooms and their apparent global increase

Growth and bioactive secondary metabolites of arctic Protoceratium reticulatum (Dinophyceae)

“…A number of marine plankton algae are known for the production of potent toxins and other bioactive compounds, they may also form Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) causing human health problems, fish kills, and/or other ecosystem disruptions (Hallegraeff, 1993;Anderson et al, 2012). The frequency, intensity and geographic distribution of such blooms, and indications on a general phytoplankton community shift towards harmful species, have increased worldwide (Hallegraeff, 2010;Fu et al, 2012).…”

Nitrate and phosphate supplementation to increase toxin production by the marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarense

“…Alexandrium tamarense, a dinoflagellate, is known to produce a suite of paralytic shellfish toxins (PST) that cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) in mammals including humans (Hallegraeff, 1993). However, the toxins they produce have great potential for biotechnology applications (Yasumoto and Satake, 1998).…”

An evaluation of the applicability of microarrays for monitoring toxic algae in Irish coastal waters

“…They are the primary producers and consumers of carbon in our oceans and through the process of photosynthesis contribute to 40-50% of the oxygen in the atmosphere (Hallegraeff et al 1993). They are responsible for most of the transfer of carbon dioxide (10 gigatonnes) from the atmosphere to the deep ocean every year ( Fig.…”

“…A small number of around 80 HAB species can produce harmful toxins, 90% of which are dinoflagellates (Sournia et al 1991;Smayda 1997). Of these, dinoflagellates are primarily responsible for the recent increase in HAB outbreaks reported worldwide (Anderson, 1989;Hallegraeff 1993;Smayda 1990;Sellner et al 2003). These HAB events can have a negative economic effect on aquaculture industries on a global scale, but it is hard to estimate the exact losses occurred during such events (Anderson 2009).…”

“…Globally harmful algal blooms (HABs) cause major environmental problems as they can cause high economic losses to the shellfish industry and, through the consumption of contaminated shellfish, can potentially impact on human health (Anderson et al 2012;Hallegraeff 1993;Smayda 1990). Haptophytes are frequently associated with HABs in marine and brackish waters.…”