“…Also, Turkey’s engagement since its strategic foreign policy decision of ‘opening to Africa’ in 2005 has encompassed the exponential growth of investments, trade volume, diplomatic ties, and transport infrastructure (Heibach and Taş, n.d.). Scholars have interpreted Turkey, on the one hand, as a unique needs-driven and counter-colonial aid donor different from both OECD DAC countries or China (Belder and Dipama, 2018; Donelli, 2018; Özkan and Akgün, 2010) and, on the other, as on a ‘neo-Ottoman’, nationalist, normative, and moral quest to carve out a new foreign policy identity for itself as a ‘virtuous power’ in contrast to the European imperial ‘Other’ (Langan, 2017). Still, the literatures on the Gulf states and Turkey have largely ignored their engagement in West Africa.…”