“…Despite its long clinical success, growing evidence has shown that PM can produce adverse effects on the stomach, liver, and kidney. Besides its nonselective-inhibitory effect on COX enzymes, a considerable amount of literature has suggested that the toxicity of PM works through oxidative stress to produce its damaging effects on the stomach, liver, and kidney [ 1 , 5 , 7 , [31] , [32] , [33] , [34] , [35] ]. Oxidative stress is a process that is initiated through well-known ROS (superoxide anion, O2 • − ; hydrogen peroxide, H 2 O 2 ; hydroxyl radical, OH • ) and reactive nitrogen species, RNS (nitric oxide, NO and peroxynitrite, ONOO − ), which are up-regulated due to exhaustion of endogenous antioxidant molecules.…”