Uptake of microcontaminants by crops irrigated with reclaimed water and groundwater under real field greenhouse conditions

Abstract

The use of reclaimed water for agricultural irrigation has emerged as a new strategy for coping with water scarcity in semiarid countries. However, the incorporation of the organic microcontaminants in such water into the diet through crop uptake poses a potential risk to human health. This paper aims to assess the presence of organic microcontaminants in different crops irrigated with groundwater and reclaimed water (secondary or tertiary effluents) in a greenhouse experiment. The determination of microcontaminants in water and vegetation samples was performed by solid-phase extraction and matrix solid-phase dispersion procedure with GC-MS/MS, respectively. The presence of nitrates in the groundwater used for irrigation increased biomass production by a higher proportion than the harvest index. The concentration of microcontaminants in lettuce, carrots, and green beans ranged from less than the limit of quantitation to 571 ng g(-1) (fresh weight). Tributyl phosphate and butylated hydroxyanisole exhibited the highest concentration levels in crops. The concentration and frequency of detection of microcontaminants were lower in green bean pods than in green bean roots and leaves. Although the concentrations were generally low, the simultaneous presence of a variety of microcontaminants should be taken into consideration when assessing the risk to human health.

Comparison of accelerated solvent extraction and quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe method for extraction and determination of pharmaceuticals in vegetables

“…The Food and Drug Administration estimated that in 2012 more than 14.6 million kilograms of antimicrobial drugs were ibuprofen, levamisole, trimethoprim, and sulfamethazine) can enter vegetables and crops (e.g. carrot, lettuce, soybeans and alfalfa) from soil and water [1,5,[12][13][14]. Sabourin et al [15] reported that pharmaceuticals in the soils originating from fertilization with municipal biosolids at agronomic rates could be accumulated in tomato, carrot, potato or sweet corn with the concentrations ranging from 0.33 to 6.25 ng g −1 dry weight.…”

Comments on “Human health risk assessment of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in plant tissue due to biosolids and manure amendments, and wastewater irrigation”

“…In the section addressing the accumulation of PPCPs in plants grown in soils that were irrigated with wastewater, only two studies were thoroughly discussed (Calderon-Preciado et al, 2013;Goldstein et al, 2014). Furthermore, the data do not properly describe PPCP uptake by plants under wastewater irrigation.…”

“…Similarly, Jelic et al (2011) reported the presence of 29 PPCPs in effluent water in Spain. In studies that have examined the uptake of PPCPs by plants grown under field conditions, compounds have been applied as mixtures resulting in more than one PPCP being detected in a single crop (Wu et al, 2010(Wu et al, , 2012Calderon-Preciado et al, 2013;Goldstein et al, 2014;Malchi et al, 2014). Thus, the article conveys the impression of safety, with a de minimis risk, when ignoring that exposure to PPCPs is always as mixtures and not as single compounds.…”

“…This mistake results in much lower ADIs for vegetables crops that often range in 85-95% water content. For example Calderon-Preciado et al (2013) found the highest concentration of flunixin in lettuce (~95% water) to be 83 ng/g fresh weight, and the dry weight concentrations are: FW concentration dry matter fraction ¼ 83 0:05 ¼ 1660 ng g DW. Applying such concentrations to the current review would indicate that a human health risk exists for PPCPs.…”

The Fate and Impact of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Agricultural Soils Irrigated With Reclaimed Water

“…34 Some types of PPCPs can accumulate in the edible parts of crops, posing a significant threat to human health (e.g., disrupting human endocrine systems and inhibiting growth of human embryonic cells). 4,33,[35][36][37] In recent years, guidelines associated with PPCPs have been issued by the Europe Union, the United States, and other countries due to their potential environmental risks. 10, 21 Although the guidelines might be able to limit the environmental release of these chemicals, the effectiveness of the guidelines may fall short due to the lack of a systemic analysis of the occurrence, distribution, transformation, and mobility of various PPCPs and an assessment of their effects on an agro-system subject to reclaimed water irrigation.…”