Neuroinflammation is a complex inflammatory process in the central nervous system, which is sought to play an important defensive role against various pathogens, toxins or factors that induce neurodegeneration. The onset of neurodegenerative diseases and various microbial infections are counted as stimuli that can challenge the host immune system and trigger the development of neuroinflammation. The homeostatic nature of neuroinflammation is essential to maintain the neuroplasticity. Neuroinflammation is regulated by the activity of neuronal, glial, and endothelial cells within the neurovascular unit, which serves as a “platform” for the coordinated action of pro- and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. Production of inflammatory mediators (cytokines, chemokines, reactive oxygen species) by brain resident cells or cells migrating from the peripheral blood, results in the impairment of blood-brain barrier integrity, thereby further affecting the course of local inflammation. In this review, we analyzed the most recent data on the central nervous system inflammation and focused on major mechanisms of neurovascular unit dysfunction caused by neuroinflammation and infections.

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Impairment of hippocampal adult neurogenesis in aging or degenerating brain is a well-known phenomenon caused by the shortage of brain stem cell pool, alterations in the local microenvironment within the neurogenic niches, or deregulation of stem cell development. Environmental enrichment (EE) has been proposed as a potent tool to restore brain functions, to prevent aging-associated neurodegeneration, and to cure neuronal deficits seen in neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders. Here, we report our data on the effects of environmental enrichment on hippocampal neurogenesis in vivo and neurosphere-forming capacity of hippocampal stem/progenitor cells in vitro. Two models – Alzheimer’s type of neurodegeneration and physiological brain aging – were chosen for the comparative analysis of EE effects. We found that environmental enrichment greatly affects the expression of markers specific for stem cells, progenitor cells and differentiated neurons (Pax6, Ngn2, NeuroD1, NeuN) in the hippocampus of young adult rats or rats with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) model but less efficiently in aged animals. Application of time-lag mathematical model for the analysis of impedance traces obtained in real-time monitoring of cell proliferation in vitro revealed that EE could restore neurosphere-forming capacity of hippocampal stem/progenitor cells more efficiently in young adult animals (fourfold greater in the control group comparing to the AD model group) but not in the aged rats (no positive effect of environmental enrichment at all). In accordance with the results obtained in vivo, EE was almost ineffective in the recovery of hippocampal neurogenic reserve in vitro in aged, but not in amyloid-treated or young adult, rats. Therefore, EE-based neuroprotective strategies effective in Aβ-affected brain could not be directly extrapolated to aged brain.

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Pathophysiology of chronic neurodegeneration is mainly based on complex mechanisms related to aberrant signal transduction, excitation/inhibition imbalance, excitotoxicity, synaptic dysfunction, oxidative stress, proteotoxicity and protein misfolding, local insulin resistance and metabolic dysfunction, excessive cell death, development of glia-supported neuroinflammation, and failure of neurogenesis. These mechanisms tightly associate with dramatic alterations in the structure and activity of the neurovascular unit (NVU) and the blood–brain barrier (BBB). NVU is an ensemble of brain cells (brain microvessel endothelial cells (BMECs), astrocytes, pericytes, neurons, and microglia) serving for the adjustment of cell-to-cell interactions, metabolic coupling, local microcirculation, and neuronal excitability to the actual needs of the brain. The part of the NVU known as a BBB controls selective access of endogenous and exogenous molecules to the brain tissue and efflux of metabolites to the blood, thereby providing maintenance of brain chemical homeostasis critical for efficient signal transduction and brain plasticity. In Alzheimer’s disease, mitochondria are the target organelles for amyloid-induced neurodegeneration and alterations in NVU metabolic coupling or BBB breakdown. In this review we discuss understandings on mitochondria-driven NVU and BBB dysfunction, and how it might be studied in current and prospective NVU/BBB in vitro models for finding new approaches for the efficient pharmacotherapy of Alzheimer’s disease.

All anatomical elements contributing to the blood-brain barrier (BBB) play a crucial role in maintaining the permeability and CNS homeostasis under physiological/pathological conditions. These elements are endothelial cells, pericytes, astroglia, and neurons that are known as a neurovascular unit (NVU). Being the integral system, NVU contributes to the regulation of neuroplasticity, neurogenesis, intercellular communications and permeability of BBB. Brain capillary endothelial cells (BCEC) are the very important part of NVU. In this review, we discuss the critical role of BCEC ion channels in BBB structural and functional integrity. In last decades, much attention has been paid to the expression of tight junctions and adherence junctions in BCEC whereas less number of studies was focused on the expression and functioning of ion channels in BCEC, however, there is growing evidence supporting their important role in the regulation of NVU/BBB functions. In general, electrophysiological properties of BCEC depend on the expression of various ion channels whose activity, presumably, coordinates intercellular communication within the NVU. Particularly, we focus on BCEC ion channels-dependent mechanisms of NVU functioning, arteriole smooth muscle cells dynamic modulation, and changes in the regional cerebral blood flow. We put special attention on ligand-gated ion channels, store-operated calcium channels, TRP ion channels, calcium-activated, voltage-gated potassium channels in BCEC. Understanding the role of ion channel signaling in the control of cerebral blood flow will helps to reveal the potential therapeutic targets to recover the NVU/BBB functional integrity in different pathological conditions (ischemia, neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration) both in vivo and in vitro BBB models.Key words: neurovascular unit; brain endothelial cells; ion channels; blood-brain barrier.For contacts: Anton N. Shuvaev, e-mail: shuvaevanton@hotmail.com Function of Brain Endothelial Ion ChannelsNeurovascular unit in physiological/pathological conditions: the role of endothelial cells. Blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays an important role in the regulation of pivotal brain functions due to ability of brain endothelial cells to provide selective transport of metabolites, xenobiotics, neurotransmitters and hormones, to regulate water exchange, and to take part in the regulation of neurogenesis. All the above-mentioned events take place within the neurovascular unit (NVU) consisting of endothelial cells, pericytes, astroglia, and neurons [1, 2]. Close interactions between the cells of the NVU are based on the coordinated expression and activity of receptors, transporters and channels contributing to establishment and maintenance of the BBB structural and functional integrity in physiological conditions, or to its impairment in central nervous system disorders such as hypertension [3], stroke [4], Alzheimer's disease [5], diabetes mellitus [6] and cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy [7].B...

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