Boreal species were repeatedly exposed to ice ages and went through cycles of contraction and expansion while sister species alternated periods of contact and isolation. The resulting genetic structure is consequently complex, and demographic inferences are intrinsically challenging. The range of Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Siberian spruce (Picea obovata) covers most of northern Eurasia; yet their geographical limits and histories remain poorly understood. To delineate the hybrid zone between the two species and reconstruct their joint demographic history, we analysed variation at nuclear SSR and mitochondrial DNA in 102 and 88 populations, respectively. The dynamics of the hybrid zone was analysed with approximate Bayesian computation (ABC) followed by posterior predictive structure plot reconstruction and the presence of barriers across the range tested with estimated effective migration surfaces. To estimate the divergence time between the two species, nuclear sequences from two well-separated populations of each species were analysed with ABC. Two main barriers divide the range of the two species: one corresponds to the hybrid zone between them, and the other separates the southern and northern domains of Norway spruce. The hybrid zone is centred on the Urals, but the genetic impact of Siberian spruce extends further west. The joint distribution of mitochondrial and nuclear variation indicates an introgression of mitochondrial DNA from Norway spruce into Siberian spruce. Overall, our data reveal a demographic history where the two species interacted frequently and where migrants originating from the Urals and the West Siberian Plain recolonized northern Russia and Scandinavia using scattered refugial populations of Norway spruce as stepping stones towards the west.

Swiss stone pine Pinus cembra L. is a species with fragmented range, occurring in the Alpine-East Carpathian mountain system. Seeds of P. cembra are dispersed by nutcrackers, which offers potential possibilities for gene exchange among populations. Using isozyme analysis, we have examined five samples from two parts of the Swiss stone pine range: the Alps (Switzerland and Austria) and the Carpathians (two samples from the northern macroslope of the Gorgany Ridge, Eastern Carpathians, Ivano-Frankivs'ka oblast and one sample from Zakarpats'ka oblast of Ukraine). The allele frequencies of 30 isozyme loci, coding for enzymes ADH, FDH, FEST, GDH, GOT, IDH, LAP, MNR, MDH, PEPCA, 6-PGD, PGI, PGM, SDH, SKDH, SOD, were analyzed using cluster analysis and Principal Component Analysis. Two clusters, corresponding to the isolated Alpine and Carpathian parts of the range, were found. The main contribution to these differences were made by loci Adh-1, . The interpopulation differentiation proved to be somewhat higher than that typical for pines ( F ST = 7.4%), but within the limits characteristic for taxonomically close species. Thus, isolation of the populations did not lead to their marked differentiation, which may be explained by gene flow and balancing selection, which equalizes gene frequencies across the fragmented species area. Interlocus ( F ST heterogeneity (from 0.003 to 0.173) suggests adaptive significance of some of the allozyme polymorphisms or linkage of some loci with adaptive genes. The Carpathian populations were shown to have higher gene diversity than the Alpine ones (expected heterozygosities 0.095-0.114 and 0.060-0.080, respectively). A deficiency of heterozygotes (as compared to the Hardy-Weinberg proportions), observed in the embryo sample, was probably explained by inbreeding. The reduction in the area of Carpathian pine forests in Holocene, caused by the global climatic changes and the anthropogenic impact, is hazardous for the gene pool of the species. The maintenance of genetic uniqueness of both Carpathian populations of P. cembra in general, and individual stands in particular, requires special measures for protection of Swiss stone pine in the Eastern Carpathians.

Samples of salmon Salmo salar from the River Kachkovka and the River Nilma in northern Russia were analysed by starch gel electrophoresis and compared to three Norwegian stocks, the Neiden river in northern Norway and Øyreselv and Hopselv rivers on the west coast. The comparison included the following polymorphic loci: AAT‐4*, IDDH‐2*, IDHP‐3*, MDH‐ 3,4*, MEP‐2*, ESTD* as well as the newly discovered polymorphic loci FBALD‐3* and TPI‐3*. Samples were run side by side on gels, and the alleles found in the Russian stocks were the same as those found in the Norwegian stocks, although the electrophoretic methods used lead to differences in designations of alleles. A polymorphism in ESTD* which involves a slow allele was commonly observed in the three northern populations of the Nilma, Kachkovka and Neiden rivers. This allele was absent in the other Norwegian stocks and in a major brood stock of farmed salmon in Norway. The IDHP‐3*116allele was found in unusually high frequencies in the northern populations. Thus, the variability observed at these two loci indicates a barrier to gene flow between the northern salmon stocks and the more southern stocks in the East Atlantic area.

Testing systems for molecular identification of micropropagated elite aspen (Populus tremula L.) genotypes were developed on the base on microsatellite (SSR) loci. Out of 33 tested microsatellite loci, 14 were selected due to sustainable PCR amplification and substantial variability in elite clones of aspen aimed for establishment of fast-rotated forest plantations. All eight tested clones had different multilocus genotypes. Among 114 trees from three reference native stands located near the established plantations, 80 haplotypes were identified while some repeated genotypes were attributed to natural clones which appeared as a result of sprouting. The selected set of SSR markers showed reliable individual identification with low probability of appearance of identical aspen genotypes (a minimum of 4.8 · 10−10 and 1 × 10−4 for unrelated and related individuals, resp.). Case studies demonstrating practical applications of the test system are described including analysis of clonal structure and levels of genetic diversity in three natural aspen stands growing in the regions where plantations made of elite clones were established.

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