Gluten, a protein fraction from wheat, rye, barley, oats, their hybrids and derivatives, is very important in baking technology. The number of people suffering from gluten intolerance is growing worldwide, and at the same time, the need for foods suitable for a gluten-free diet is increasing. Bread and bakery products are an essential part of the daily diet. Therefore, new naturally gluten-free baking ingredients and new methods of processing traditional ingredients are sought. The study discusses the use of additives to replace gluten and ensure the stability and elasticity of the dough, to improve the nutritional quality and sensory properties of gluten-free bread. The current task is to extend the shelf life of gluten-free bread and bakery products and thus extend the possibility of its distribution in a fresh state. This work is also focused on various technological possibilities of gluten-free bread and the preparation of bakery products.

Higher salt intake is associated with the risk of cardiovascular and kidney diseases, hypertension and gastric cancer. Salt intake reduction represents an effective way to improve people's health, either by the right choice of food or by a reduction of added salt. Salt substitutes are often used and also herb homogenates are treated by high pressure technology. Salt reduction significantly influences the shelf life, texture, pH, taste, and aroma of cheese. The composition of emulsifying salts or starter cultures must be modified to enact changes in microbial diversity, protease activity and the ripening process. The texture becomes softer and aroma atypical. In bakery products, a salt reduction of only 20–30% is acceptable. Water absorption, dough development, length and intensity of kneading and stability of dough are changed. Gluten development and its viscoelastic properties are affected. The salt reduction promotes yeast growth and CO2 production. Specific volume and crust colour intensity decreased, and the crumb porosity changed. In meat products, salt provides flavour, texture, and shelf life, and water activity increases. In this case, myofibrillar proteins’ solubility, water binding activity and colour intensity changes were found. The composition of curing nitrite salt mixtures and starter cultures must be modified.

This document, as well as any data and map included herein, are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area. 2  ECO/WKP(2019)45 Unclassified OECD Working Papers should not be reported as representing the official views of the OECD or of its member countries. The opinions expressed and arguments employed are those of the author(s). Working Papers describe preliminary results or research in progress by the author(s) and are published to stimulate discussion on a broad range of issues on which the OECD works.

By Zuzana Smidova OECD Working Papers should not be reported as representing the official views of the OECD or of its member countries. The opinions expressed and arguments employed are those of the author(s).

The Estonian fiscal position is much better than in many OECD countries, the country stands out for having a rather lean government sector and the authorities are striving for efficient use of existing resources. Both healthcare and local government were particularly hit the by the decrease of resources as a result of the unprecedented GDP fall during the downturn. As a return to high revenue buoyancy will not be immediate, there are challenges for delivering the same with less money but it is also an opportunity to reconsider provision of public services. The healthcare sector is state dominated and offers some scope for efficiency improvements. On the supply side, further streamlining of the existing hospital network, emphasising primary care, and keeping an eye on the standard of quality of care, would be helpful. A number of market signals are already in place on the demand side, such as fees and drug co-payments. Yet these raise issues of accessibility of healthcare, in particular for financially distressed households. A cap on out-of-pocket spending together with active promotion of least expensive drugs use would help to address this issue. Local government seems rather extensive and fragmented for such a small country. Exploiting economies of scale, either by merging or requiring deeper cooperation , should bring gains in terms of public service efficiency. Offering greater scope for tax raising at the local level can incentivise the municipalities to adopt more growth-oriented economic policies. This working Paper relates to the 2010 Economic Survey of Estonia (www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/estonia).