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Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a developed technology to minimize CO2 emissions and reduce global climate change. Currently, shale gas formations are considered as a suitable target for CO2 sequestration projects predominantly due to their wide availability. Compared to conventional geological formations including saline aquifers and coal seams, depleted shale formations provide larger storage potential due to the high adsorption capacity of CO2 compared to methane in the shale formation. However, the injected CO2 causes possible geochemical interactions with the shale formation during storage applications and CO2 enhanced shale gas recovery (ESGR) processes. The CO2/shale interaction is a key factor for the efficiency of CO2 storage in shale formations, as it can significantly alter the shale properties. The formation of carbonic acid from CO2 dissolution is the main cause for the alterations in the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the shale, which in return affects the storage capacity, pore properties, and fluid transport. Therefore, in this paper, the effect of CO2 exposure on shale properties is comprehensively reviewed, to gain an in-depth understanding of the impact of CO2/shale interaction on shale properties. This paper reviews the current knowledge of the CO2/shale interactions and describes the results achieved to date. The pore structure is one of the most affected properties by CO2/shale interactions; several scholars indicated that the differences in mineral composition for shales would result in wide variations in pore structure system. A noticeable reduction in specific surface area of shales was observed after CO2 treatment, which in the long-term could decrease CO2 adsorption capacity, affecting the CO2 storage efficiency. Other factors including shale sedimentary, pressure and temperature can also alter the pore system and decrease the shale “caprock” seal efficiency. Similarly, the alteration in shales’ surface chemistry and functional species after CO2 treatment may increase the adsorption capacity of CO2, impacting the overall storage potential in shales. Furthermore, the injection of CO2 into shales may also influence the wetting behavior. Surface wettability is mainly affected by the presented minerals in shale, and less affected by brine salinity, temperature, organic content, and thermal maturity. Mainly, shales have strong water-wetting behavior in the presence of hydrocarbons, however, the alteration in shale’s wettability towards CO2-wet will significantly minimize CO2 storage capacities, and affect the sealing efficiency of caprock. The CO2/shale interactions were also found to cause noticeable degradation in shales’ mechanical properties. CO2 injection can weaken shale, decrease its brittleness and increases its plasticity and toughness. Various reductions in tri-axial compressive strength, tensile strength, and the elastic modulus of shales were observed after CO2 injection, due to the dissolution effect and adsorption strain within the pores. Based on this review, we conclude that CO2/shale interaction is a significant factor for the efficiency of CCS. However, due to the heterogeneity of shales, further studies are needed to include various shale formations and identify how different shales’ mineralogy could affect the CO2 storage capacity in the long-term.

We performed hydraulic fracturing experiments on cylindrical cores of anisotropic shale obtained by drilling normal to the sedimentary plane. Experiments were conducted under ambient condition and uniaxial stresses, using three types of fracturing fluid: viscous oil, water, and liquid carbon dioxide (L-CO 2 ). In the experiments using water and oil, cracks extended along the loading direction normal to the sedimentary plane under the uniaxial loading and extended along the sedimentary plane without loading. These results suggest that the direction of crack extension is strongly affected by in situ stress conditions. Fluorescent microscopy revealed that hydraulic fracturing with viscous oil produced linear cracks with few branches, whereas that with water produced cracks with many branches inclining from the loading axis. Statistical analysis of P wave polarity of acoustic emission waveforms showed that viscous oil tended to induce Mode I fracture, whereas both water and L-CO 2 tended to induce Mode II fracture. Crack extension upon injection of L-CO 2 was independent of loading condition unlike extension for the other two fluids.This result seemed attributable to the low viscosity of L-CO 2 and was consistent with previous observations for granite specimens that low-viscosity fluids like CO 2 tend to induce widely extending cracks with many branches, with Mode II fractures being dominant. These features are more advantageous for shale gas production than those induced by injection of conventional slick water.

We conducted hydraulic fracturing (HF) experiments on 170 mm cubic granite specimens with a 20 mm diameter central hole to investigate how fluid viscosity affects HF process and crack properties. In experiments using supercritical carbon dioxide (SC‐CO2), liquid carbon dioxide (L‐CO2), water, and viscous oil with viscosity of 0.051–336.6 mPa · s, we compared the results for breakdown pressure, the distribution and fracturing mechanism of acoustic emission, and the microstructure of induced cracks revealed by using an acrylic resin containing a fluorescent compound. Fracturing with low‐viscosity fluid induced three‐dimensionally sinuous cracks with many secondary branches, which seem to be desirable pathways for enhanced geothermal system, shale gas recovery, and other processes.

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