In the recent decades; due to the persistent change in the precipitation levels and the limited capacity of economic and social systems in responding to these changes, much attention has been paid to the negative impacts of climate change. One of the most important consequences of climate change is abnormal drought, which is affecting the livelihood of many farmers across the world. The number of areas affected by such droughts is increasing annually (Mengistu, 2011).Drought is the shortage of precipitation; this shortage causes shortages in soil moisture and surface water to the extent that disrupts natural life (Neisi et al., 2020). Drought has a complex and irregular nature that makes it very difficult to respond to and preempt; therefore, the best way to mitigate its impacts, especially on agriculture, is to take appropriate control and management measures. In recent years, it has been suggested that in the struggle against droughts and their effects, farmers could be amongst the most important assets of the agricultural sector (Neisi et al., 2020). Numerous empirical studies have shown that many villagers and farmers have usually found ways to adapt to the harsh conditions of drought; therefore,
The coronavirus (COVID-19) epidemic has created a great deal of fear and uncertainty about health, economy, and social life. Therefore, the health, social, and economic impacts of COVID-19 are of great importance. In prone rural communities, tourism industry can contribute to the sustainable economy and social development of the villagers, and as a dynamic economic sector, cause economic, social, cultural, and environmental changes. In this regard, the purpose of this inquiry was to develop tourism during the coronavirus pandemic using the social exchange theory (SET). The present study is a descriptive, correlational and causal inquiry that is conducted using survey technique. The statistical population included tourists visiting Sistan region around Hamoun Wetland in eastern Iran (N = 850). In the sampling process, 266 tourists were selected as a sample using random sampling strategy. The study instrument was a researcher-made questionnaire, whose validity was confirmed by a panel of subjectivists and its reliability was approved by a pilot study and Cronbach's alpha coefficients (0.87≥ α ≥ 0.71). Based on SET, the proposed causal model was able to explain about 56% (RAdj2 = 0.562) of the variance changes in tourism development during the COVID-19 epidemic.
The purpose of this study was to explore the willingness of farmers to participate in the management and conservation of the wetlands in Iran. Theoretically, our study introduces social identity models of collective action into the discourse of sustainable wetland management for the first time. The study site was Ghara Gheshlagh Wetland one of the important wetlands in northwestern Iran. The present applied research was conducted using a cross-sectional survey. The statistical population was the farming communities around the Ghara Gheshlagh Wetland. A proportionally allocated multi-staged stratified random sampling approach was employed to select 373 farmers as a representative sample. The data collection tool was a closed-ended questionnaire whose validity and reliability were tested and approved. The results indicated that the social identity model of collective action (SIMCA) and the encapsulation model of social identity in collective action (EMSICA) were able to explain 0.45 and 0.40 of the variance changes in the farmers' willingness to participate in the management and conservation of the wetland. This finding reveals that the environmental and wetland policies and management practice require collective determination, formation of collective identity beliefs, and we thinking system. Therefore, the SIMCA can better assist wetland managers, policy-makers, practitioners, and socioecological intervenors than the EMSICA because of its emphasis on social identity.
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