Background: While transactional models suggest that parent and child mental health reciprocally influence one another over development, research has largely focused on parent-to-child effects. Additionally, it is not known whether observed associations hold when appropriate statistical tools are used to operationalise within-family dynamics. Methods: We investigated within-family mental health dynamics using autoregressive latent trajectory models with structured residuals, stratified by child gender. Parental psychological distress was assessed using the Kessler (K6) scale, and children's internalising and externalising problems were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Both measures were administered at the age 3, 5, 7, 11, 14 and 17 waves of the Millennium Cohort Study (N = 10,746, ~50% female). Results: Maternal psychological distress was positively associated with subsequent internalising and externalising problems for girls but only with internalising problems for boys. Paternal psychological distress was associated with boys' later internalising and externalising problems during early adolescence. Among boys, internalising problems were associated with later maternal psychological distress, while externalising problems were associated with later paternal psychological distress. Among girls, internalising problems were associated with subsequent paternal psychological distress, while externalising problems were associated with later maternal psychological distress. Finally, maternal and paternal psychological distress showed negative bidirectional associations in early childhood but positive associations in middle childhood and early adolescence. Conclusions: Findings support a transactional model of family mental health, with both child-to-parent and parent-to-child effects playing a role in the development of mental health difficulties. Mental health intervention efforts should, therefore, target the whole family system.

This replication and extension of Mõttus and Rozgonjuk (2019) compared the extents of age-related information captured by different levels of the personality trait hierarchy (domains, facets and nuances, indexed by individual items) in several samples (N = 51,524) of different age ranges and cultural backgrounds, and tested with different instruments. Across samples and measures, lower trait hierarchy levels (especially nuances) tended to contain substantially more age-sensitive information than higher levels; most of the unique age-sensitive information was in nuances. Besides showing the need for more nuanced personality (development) research, the findings suggest ways of testing novel hypotheses that rely on systematic between-trait variance in age differences.

role of harsh parenting practices in early-to middlechildhood socioemotional development: An examination in the Millennium Cohort Study', Child Development.

Personality traits change from childhood through midadolescence. In adulthood, traits tend to gradually shift in a socially desirable direction, with people becoming, on average, more agreeable, conscientious, and emotionally stable (

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Mean-level personality change, also referred to as normative change, refers to changes in average personality trait levels in a population over time (Roberts, Walton,

Mental health disorders share substantial variance, prompting researchers to develop structural models that can capture both generalised psychopathology risk and disorder/symptom-specific variation. This study investigated the associations of the general and specific psychopathology factors with multiple personality trait hierarchy levels: broad domains, their facets and nuances (N = 1839 Estonian adults). A bi-factor model with a general 'p' factor and specific factors for internalising problems, thought disorders and substance use best represented psychopathology structure. Although traits' predictive accuracy varied across psychopathology factors, nuances (the lowest level personality units) provided higher predictive accuracy and higher discriminant validity than domains. For example, traits related to high vulnerability, depression and immoderation and low friendliness and achievement striving were most strongly associated with the p factor. Nuances may prove useful for predicting and understanding general and specific psychopathology forms.

Objective: Personality traits change in both mean levels and variance across the life span but the mechanisms underlying these developmental trends remain unclear. Social investment theory is one of the leading theories trying to explain personality maturation, suggesting that social role expectations drive personality changes in adulthood. However, there is not sufficient empirical evidence for SIT, thus the present study tested whether social expectations can explain personality maturation in young adulthood. Methods: A pool of 257 personality items, which was not driven by a priori conceptual model of personality, was used to measure young adults’ personality trait mean levels, personality variance and socially expected level of traits from different perspectives (friends, partners and bosses/supervisors). Results: There were consistent expectations for how young adults should think, feel and behave. Personality traits under stronger social expectations have higher mean levels and lower variances than traits under lower expectations; traits with stronger social expectations show higher means at later ages; and traits’ variances increase with age. Conclusion: Our results are partially consistent with SIT, suggesting that social expectations could be a potential mechanism to explain personality changes in young adulthood.