MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small non-coding RNAs that negatively regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. It has been reported that microRNA-144 (miR-144) is highly conserved and can combine complementarily with the 3'-UTRs of target gene mRNAs to inhibit mRNA translation or promote targeted mRNA degradation. MiR-144 is abnormally expressed and has been identified as a tumor suppressor in many types of solid tumors. Increasing evidence supports a crucial role for miR-144 in modulating physiopathologic processes, such as proliferation, apoptosis, invasion, migration and angiogenesis in different tumor cells. Apart from these functions, miR-144 can also affect drug sensitivity, cancer treatment and patient prognosis. In this review, we summarize the biological functions of miR-144, its direct targets and the important signal pathways through which it acts in relation to various tumors. We also discuss the role of miR-144 in tumor biology and its clinical significance in detail and offer novel insights into molecular targeting therapy for human cancers.

As evidenced by the behavior of loss-of-function mutants of PTEN in the context of a gain-of-function mutation of AKT1, the PTEN-AKT1 signaling pathway plays a critical role in human cancers. In this study, we demonstrated that a deficiency in PTEN or activation of AKT1 potentiated the expression of platelet-derived growth factor receptor α (PDGFRα) based on studies on Pten−/− mouse embryonic fibroblasts, human cancer cell lines, the hepatic tissues of Pten conditional knockout mice, and human cancer tissues. Loss of PTEN enhanced PDGFRα expression via activation of the AKT1-CREB signaling cascade. CREB transactivated PDGFRα expression by direct binding of the promoter of the PDGFRα gene. Depletion of PDGFRα attenuated the tumorigenicity of Pten-null cells in nude mice. Moreover, the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway has been shown to positively correlate with PDGFRα expression in multiple cancers. Augmented PDGFRα was associated with poor survival of cancer patients. Lastly, combination treatment with the AKT inhibitor MK-2206 and the PDGFR inhibitor CP-673451 displayed synergistic anti-tumor effects. Therefore, activation of the AKT1-CREB-PDGFRα signaling pathway contributes to the tumor growth induced by PTEN deficiency and should be targeted for cancer treatment.

Tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) is an autosomal dominant disease characterized by the benign tumor formation in multiple organs. The main etiology of TSC is the loss‐of‐function mutation of TSC1 or TSC2 gene, which leads to aberrant activation of mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1). In this research, we found a significant increase of 6‐phosphofructo‐2‐kinase/fructose‐2,6‐biphosphatase 3 (PFKFB3) expression in Tsc1−/− and Tsc2−/− mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) compared with the control cells. Inhibition of mTORC1 led to a dramatic decrease of PFKFB3 expression, indicating PFKFB3 regulation by mTORC1. Moreover, suppression of mTORC1 inhibited the expression of PFKFB3 in rat uterine leiomyoma‐derived Tsc2‐null ELT3 cells and human tumor cells. Furthermore, we identified hypoxia‐inducible factor 1α (HIF‐1α) as a mediator transmitting the signal from mTORC1 to PFKFB3. Depletion of PFKFB3 inhibited proliferation and tumorigenicity of Tsc1‐ or Tsc2‐deficient cells. In addition, combination of rapamycin with PFK15, a PFKFB3 inhibitor, exerts a stronger inhibitory effect on cell proliferation of Tsc1‐ or Tsc2‐null MEFs than treatment with single drug. We conclude that loss of TSC1 or TSC2 led to upregulated expression of PFKFB3 through activation of mTORC1/HIF‐1α signaling pathway and co‐administration of rapamycin and PFK15 may be a promising strategy for the treatment of TSC tumors as well as other hyperactivated mTORC1‐related tumors.

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