Hypoxia causes increased expression of several proteins that have the potential to promote neovascularization. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is up-regulated by hypoxia in the retina and plays a central role in the development of several types of ocular neovascularization, but the effects of other hypoxia-regulated proteins are less clear. Stromal-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) and its receptor, CXCR4, have hypoxia response elements in the promoter regions of their genes and are increased in hypoxic liver and heart. In this study, we found that SDF-1 and CXCR4 are increased in hypoxic retina, with SDF-1 localized in glial cells primarily near the surface of the retina and CXCR4 localized in bone marrow-derived cells. Glial cells also expressed CXCR4, which suggested the possibility of autocrine stimulation, but influx of bone marrow-derived cells is the major source of increased levels of CXCR4. High levels of VEGF in the retina in the absence of hypoxia also increased levels of Cxcr4 and Sdf1 mRNA. CXCR4 antagonists reduced influx of bone marrow-derived cells into ischemic retina and strongly suppressed retinal neovascularization, VEGF-induced subretinal neovascularization, and choroidal neovascularization. These data suggest that SDF-1 and CXCR4 contribute to the involvement of bone marrow-derived cells and collaborate with VEGF in the development of several types of ocular neovascularization. They provide new targets for therapeutic intervention that may help to bolster and supplement effects obtained with VEGF antagonists.

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Purpose. To describe the morphological characteristics and efficacy of OCTA in detecting CNV in nAMD. We retrospectively reviewed 53 patients (86 eyes) with suspected CNV secondary to wet AMD. All the patients underwent a multimodal assessment for CNV. Two independent readers calculated the sensitivity and specificity of OCTA in detecting CNV compared with FA. A qualitative analysis of OCTA was also performed to describe the morphological appearance of CNV. Among 86 eyes of 53 patients, 52 eyes were diagnosed as having CNV based on the FA imaging analysis. According to FA, CNV was classified as classic in 28 eyes, predominantly classic in 6 eyes, minimally classic in 9 eyes, and occult in 9 eyes. In 56 eyes, CNV was visualized on OCTA and corresponding OCT B-scans. In total, 46.4% (26/56) had well-circumscribed vessels, and 53.6% (30/56) showed poorly circumscribed vessels. There were 11 false positives and 7 false negatives using OCTA. The specificity of OCTA for the detection of CNV was 67.6%, with sensitivity of 86.5%. OCTA may help in the noninvasive diagnosis of CNV and may provide a method for monitoring the evolution of CNV.

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In NAION patients, a dropout of microvasculature in peripapillary superficial retina and optic disc could be detected by OCTA directly. OCTA might become a useful tool for detection and monitoring of NAION. Lasers Surg. Med. 50:194-201, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.