Purpose: Mycosis fungoides (MF) is a cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) characterized by neoplastic skin-homing T cells. To better understand the immunopathogenesis of MF, we analyzed the functional ability of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from early and late MF/CTCL patients to express cytokine genes. In late stage MF/CTCL, patients were separated into those with blood involvement (+B) and without blood involvement (−B). Experimental Design: We analyzed TH1 (interleukin 2 (IL-2), IFN-γ), TH2 (IL-4, IL-5, IL-10, IL-13), and TH17 (IL-17) cytokine gene expression from activated PBMCs from normal (n = 12), psoriasis (n = 6), early MF/CTCL (n = 11), and late MF/CTCL+B (n = 4) and MF/CTCL−B (n = 3) by quantitative real-time PCR. Results: PBMCs from early MF/CTCL and psoriasis showed higher induction of IL-2, IL-4, and IFN-γ genes than those from normal and late MF/CTCL−B and MF/CTCL+B (P < 0.05) in descending order. PBMCs from late MF/CTCL−B exhibited generally the highest level of IL-5, IL-10, IL-13, and IL-17 expression compared with the other groups. PBMCs from early MF/CTCL and late MF/CTCL−B had similarly elevated IL-13 and IL-17. Of all groups, PBMCs from late MF/CTCL+B had the lowest levels of IL-2 (P < 0.05), IL-4, IFN-γ, IL-13, and IL-17. Conclusions: The different pattern of cytokine gene expression suggests a change in immune function in MF/CTCL from early MF/CTCL to late MF/CTCL−B to late MF/CTCL+B. These stages are consistent with localized disease associated with an anti-tumor immune response and late MF/CTCL associated with a loss of immune function mediated by malignant T cells that share regulatory T cell–like properties.

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Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are an important diarrhea-causing pathogen and are regarded as a global threat for humans and farm animals. ETEC possess several virulence factors to infect its host, including colonization factors and enterotoxins. Production of heat-stable enterotoxins (STs) by most ETEC plays an essential role in triggering diarrhea and ETEC pathogenesis. In this review, we summarize the heat-stable enterotoxins of ETEC strains from different species as well as the molecular mechanisms used by these heat-stable enterotoxins to trigger diarrhea. As recently described, intestinal epithelial cells are important modulators of the intestinal immune system. Thus, we also discuss the impact of the heat-stable enterotoxins on this role of the intestinal epithelium and how these enterotoxins might affect intestinal immune cells. Finally, the latest developments in vaccination strategies to protect against infections with ST secreting ETEC strains are discussed. This review might inform and guide future research on heat-stable enterotoxins to further unravel their molecular pathogenesis, as well as to accelerate vaccine design.

Oral administration of Bifidobacteria has the capacity to suppress the skewed Th2 response in allergic mice, increasing the number of Treg and IL-10-positive cells and improve the impaired intestinal epithelial barrier function.

Dynamic aspects of Li+ intercalation-deintercalation into single KS-44 carbon particles (8-50 μm in diameter) embedded in thermally annealed Ni foils were examined in 1 M LiClO4, ethylene carbonate (EC), diethyl carbonate (DEC) (1:1 v/v) solutions by in situ, time-resolved Raman microscopy. A direct correlation was found between the position of the prominent G band, in the range 1581-1590 cm−1, and the amount of Li+ in KS-44 within the so-called dilute stage 1 phase. This information was used to determine spectroscopically and in real time the average concentration of Li+ within the volume of the particle probed by the laser beam following application of a potential step between 0.05 V vs. normalLi/Li+, i.e., nominally full Li+ intercalation and 0.7 V vs. normalLi/Li+, i.e., full Li+ deintercalation. Quantitative analysis of these transient data based on a spherical diffusion model yielded a time constant for Li+ deintercalation for dilute stage 1 phase consistent with reported values of Li+ diffusion coefficients within graphitic materials and the size of the particles probed. Single KS-44 particles cycled repeatedly into the deep Li+ -intercalation region recorded at high potentials E>0.5V vs. normalLi/Li+, displayed a new Raman band attributed to bounding graphite layers not observed for pristine KS-44 carbon under otherwise identical conditions. This new spectral feature has been tentatively associated with chemical modifications of the carbon itself which may be at least partially responsible for irreversible capacity losses. © 2002 The Electrochemical Society. All rights reserved.

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Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) are an important cause of post-weaning diarrhea (PWD) in piglets. Porcine-specific ETEC strains possess different fimbrial subtypes of which F4 fimbriae are the most frequently associated with ETEC-induced diarrhea in piglets. These F4 fimbriae are potent oral immunogens that induce protective F4-specific IgA antibody secreting cells at intestinal tissues. Recently, T-helper 17 (Th17) cells have been implicated in the protection of the host against extracellular pathogens. However, it remains unknown if Th17 effector responses are needed to clear ETEC infections. In the present study, we aimed to elucidate if ETEC elicits a Th17 response in piglets and if F4 fimbriae trigger a similar response. F4+ ETEC infection upregulated IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-21 and IL-23p19, but not IL-12 and IFN-γ mRNA expression in the systemic and mucosal immune system. Similarly, oral immunization with F4 fimbriae triggered a Th17 signature evidenced by an upregulated mRNA expression of IL-17F, RORγt, IL-23p19 and IL-21 in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Intriguingly, IL-17A mRNA levels were unaltered. To further evaluate this difference between systemic and mucosal immune responses, we assayed the cytokine mRNA profile of F4 fimbriae stimulated PBMCs. F4 fimbriae induced IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-22 and IL-23p19, but downregulated IL-17B mRNA expression. Altogether, these data indicate a Th17 dominated response upon oral immunization with F4 fimbriae and F4+ ETEC infection. Our work also highlights that IL-17B and IL-17F participate in the immune response to protect the host against F4+ ETEC infection and could aid in the design of future ETEC vaccines.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13567-015-0264-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

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