The dynamic processes of formatting long-term memory traces in the cortex are poorly understood. The investigation of these processes requires measurements of task-evoked neuronal activities from large numbers of neurons over many days. Here, we present a two-photon imaging-based system to track eventrelated neuronal activity in thousands of neurons through the quantitative measurement of EGFP proteins expressed under the control of the EGR1 gene promoter. A recognition algorithm was developed to detect GFP-positive neurons in multiple cortical volumes and thereby to allow the reproducible tracking of 4,000 neurons in each volume for 2 mo. The analysis revealed a contextspecific response in sparse layer II neurons. The context-evoked response gradually increased during several days of training and was maintained 1 mo later. The formed traces were specifically activated by the training context and were linearly correlated with the behavioral response. Neuronal assemblies that responded to specific contexts were largely separated, indicating the sparse coding of memory-related traces in the layer II cortical circuit. I n the mammalian brain, memory traces in cortical areas are poorly understood. In contrast to the medial temporal lobe, particularly the hippocampus, which is involved in the temporary storage of declarative memories (1, 2), the neocortex is believed to store remote memories (3-6). However, remarkably little knowledge regarding the sites and dynamics of remote memory storage has been revealed at the cellular level owing to the complexity of the connections and the large number of neurons within the cortical circuit.In vivo electrophysiological recording of neuronal firing revolutionized neurobiology by linking neuronal activity with animal behavior. The small number of neurons recorded by the electrodes, however, was a limitation, as information coding and decoding may use an army of neurons forming neuronal assemblies (7,8). Efforts to record the activity of larger populations of neurons in cortical volumes have been actively pursued by either increasing the number of electrode probes (7, 9-11) or using calcium indicator-based imaging (12-15) and immediate early gene (IEG)-based reporters (16-18). The expression of IEGs is correlated with the averaged neuronal activation on external stimuli (19,20), implying that the marked neurons are involved in behavior (1,(21)(22)(23)(24)(25). Studies using in vivo imaging of IEGs have revealed cortical coding in the visual cortex and in other cortical areas, reflecting electrical activation in individual neurons (16,17). Among IEGs, the expression of early growth response protein 1 (EGR1, also known as zif268) is associated with high-frequency stimulation and the induction of long-term plasticity during learning (26,27). To measure neuronal activation in cortical circuits during a behavioral task, we used an EGR1 expression reporter mouse line in which the expression of the EGFP protein is under the control of the Egr1 gene promoter. We designed offline recordi...

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Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions are a major contributor to the climate change equation, and thus strategies need to be developed in order to reduce increases in CO 2 levels in the atmosphere. One of the most promising approaches is to convert CO 2 into useful products in engineered processes. The photocatalytic reduction of CO 2 into hydrocarbon fuels is a promising way to recycle CO 2 as a fuel feedstock by taking advantage of the readily available solar energy. This article reviews the basics of CO 2 photoreduction mechanisms, limiting steps, possible strategies to enhance photoreduction efficiency, and the state-of-the-art photocatalytic systems for CO 2 reduction. In particular, a comparison between different catalytic systems, including biological (plants and algae), inorganics (semiconductors), organics (molecular complexes), and hybrid (enzyme/semiconductors) systems is provided.

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We theoretically investigated the generation progress of high-order harmonics utilizing Bohmian trajectories, which are calculated from the accurate numerical wave function. It is found that the harmonic emission spectrum from atoms in an intense laser field calculated by Bohmian trajectories agrees well with that found by numerically solving the time-dependent Schrödinger equation. Through the analysis of the dynamic behavior of Bohmian trajectories, we investigated the ionization process, the acceleration of the ionized electron in the laser field, and its recollision with the parent ion in the progress. Furthermore, the individual behavior and the coherent contribution of these trajectories to the harmonic emission are discussed.

Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) has potential for addressing deficits in water supplies worldwide. It is also widely used for preventing saltwater intrusion, maintaining the groundwater table, and augmenting ecological stream flows, among many other beneficial environmental applications. However, field MAR sites have experienced arsenic mobilization from aquifer formation minerals due to induced changes in groundwater chemistry. To address this environmental concern, it is crucial to understand the potential sources and sinks impacting arsenic mobilization. This paper outlines important mineral-water interactions that can occur at MAR sites. Detailed information on minerals of concern, physiochemical processes for arsenic mobilization or attenuation, and the potential impact of microbial activity and hydrology on these processes is provided. Based on these mineral-water interactions, guidelines for predicting arsenic mobility are presented, and recommendations are made concerning MAR site monitoring. The review emphasizes important aspects in correlating interfacial reactions to reactive transport modeling and elucidating future challenges, a first step toward developing safer and more sustainable MAR operations.