Each major step leading to the classical yellow, orange and red constituents of Monascus azaphilone pigments was defined.

Monascus spp. are filamentous fungi famous for their fermented products, especially red mold rice (RMR), a traditional fermented food in East Asian areas with a very long edible history documented back to the Han dynasty (BC 202-AD 220) in China. Nowadays, RMR and its related products involve a very large industry from artisanal traditional fermentations to food companies to medicine manufacturers, which are distributed worldwide. Modern studies have shown that Monascus spp. are able to produce abundant beneficial secondary metabolites, such as monacolins (cholesterollowering agents), γ -amino butyric acid (an antihypertensive substance), dimerumic acid (an antioxidant), and pigments (food-grade colorants), and some strains can also secrete citrinin, a nephrotoxic metabolite. Monascus-related studies have received much attention because of their wide applications. However, to our knowledge, no systematic review on the progress of Monascus research has ever been published. In this review, the progress of research on Monascus is summarized into 3 stages: Monascus fermentation, Monascus molecular biology, and Monascus genomics. This review covers the past history, current status, and future direction of Monascus research, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of Monascus research progress.

The genus of Monascus was nominated by van Tieghem in 1884, but its fermented product-red mold rice (RMR), namely red yeast rice, has been used as folk medicines, food colorants, and fermentation starters for more than thousands of years in oriental countries. Nowadays, RMR is widely developed as food supplements around the world due to its functional compounds such as monacolin K (MK, also called lovastatin) and γ-aminobutyric acid. But the usage of RMR also incurs controversy resulting from contamination of citrinin (a kind of mycotoxin) produced by some Monascus strains. In the past decade, it has made great progress to Monascus spp. at the genetic level with the application of molecular biology techniques to restrain the citrinin production and increase the yields of MK and pigment in RMR, as well as aid Monascus classification and phylogenesis. Up to now, hundreds of papers about Monascus molecular biology (MMB) have been published in the international primary journals. However, to our knowledge, there is no MMB review issued until now. In this review, current understanding of Monascus spp. from the view of molecular biology will be covered and insights into research areas that need to be further investigated will also be discussed.

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Shanxi aged vinegar (SAV) is the most famous one among the four typical famous vinegars in China, which is produced by spontaneous solid-state fermentation using sorghum, bran, and millet chaff and Daqu. In this study, free phenolic acids (FPAs) species and changes during SAV aging, and the synergistic antioxidant activities between FPAs was investigated. The results revealed that eight FPAs, including protocatechuic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, salicylic acid, dihydro sinapic acid, p-coumaric acid, sinapic acid, dihydro ferulic acid, and ferulic acid, stably existed during SAV 0-5 year aging periods, whereas during the aging time evaporation of water and FPAs combining with melanoidins made prediction of precise FPAs contents difficult. With regard to FPAs synergistic antioxidant activities, it was observed that the FPAs antioxidative interrelations were antagonism in antiradical activity experiments. And, only a few groups of FPAs mixtures showed antagonism in reduction experiments.