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Osteoclasts, together with osteoblasts, control the amount of bone tissue and regulate bone remodeling. Osteoclast differentiation is an important factor related to the pathogenesis of bone-loss related diseases. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) acts as a signal mediator in osteoclast differentiation. Simvastatin, which inhibits 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A, is a hypolipidemic drug which is known to affect bone metabolism and suppresses osteoclastogenesis induced by receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL). In this study, we analyzed whether simvastatin can inhibit RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis through suppression of the subsequently formed ROS and investigated whether simvastatin can inhibit H2O2-induced signaling pathways in osteoclast differentiation. We found that simvastatin decreased expression of tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP), a genetic marker of osteoclast differentiation, and inhibited intracellular ROS generation in RAW 264.7 cell lines. ROS generation activated NF-κB, protein kinases B (AKT), mitogen-activated protein kinases signaling pathways such as c-JUN N-terminal kinases, p38 MAP kinases as well as extracellular signal-regulated kinase. Simvastatin was found to suppress these H2O2-induced signaling pathways in osteoclastogenesis. Together, these results indicate that simvastatin acts as an osteoclastogenesis inhibitor through suppression of ROS-mediated signaling pathways. This indicates that simvastatin has potential usefulness for osteoporosis and pathological bone resorption.

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We report a smart mesoporous silica nanoparticle (MSN) with a pore surface designed to undergo charge conversion in intracellular endosomal condition. The surface of mesopores in the silica nanoparticles was engineered to have pH-hydrolyzable citraconic amide. Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) analyses confirmed the successful modification of the pore surfaces. MSNs (MSN–Cit) with citraconic amide functionality on the pore surfaces exhibited a negative zeta potential (−10 mV) at pH 7.4 because of the presence of carboxylate end groups. At cellular endosomal pH (∼5.0), MSN–Cit have a positive zeta potential (16 mV) indicating the dramatic charge conversion from negative to positive by hydrolysis of surface citraconic amide. Cytochrome c (Cyt c) of positive charges could be incorporated into the pores of MSN–Cit by electrostatic interactions. The release of Cyt c can be controlled by adjusting the pH of the release media. At pH 7.4, the Cyt c release was retarded, whereas, at pH 5.0, MSN–Cit facilitated the release of Cyt c. The released Cyt c maintained the enzymatic activity of native Cyt c. Hemolytic activity of MSN–Cit over red blood cells (RBCs) was more pronounced at pH 5.0 than at pH 7.0, indicating the capability of intracellular endosomal escape of MSN carriers. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) studies showed that MSN–Cit effectively released Cyt c in endosomal compartments after uptake by cancer cells. The MSN developed in this work may serve as efficient intracellular carriers of many cell-impermeable therapeutic proteins.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the in vitro osteogenic effects and in vivo new bone formation of three-dimensional (3D) printed alendronate (Aln)-releasing poly(caprolactone) (PCL) (Aln/PCL) scaffolds in rat tibial defect models. 3D printed Aln/PCL scaffolds were fabricated via layer-by-layer deposition. The fabricated Aln/PCL scaffolds had high porosity and an interconnected pore structure and showed sustained Aln release. In vitro studies showed that MG-63 cells seeded on the Aln/PCL scaffolds displayed increased alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and calcium content in a dose-dependent manner when compared with cell cultures in PCL scaffolds. In addition, in vivo animal studies and histologic evaluation showed that Aln/PCL scaffolds implanted in a rat tibial defect model markedly increased new bone formation and mineralized bone tissues in a dose-dependent manner compared to PCL-only scaffolds. Our results show that 3D printed Aln/PCL scaffolds are promising templates for bone tissue engineering applications.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of alendronate released from chitosan scaffolds on enhancement of osteoblast functions and inhibition of osteoclast differentiation in vitro. The surface and cell morphologies of chitosan scaffolds and alendronate-loaded chitosan scaffolds were characterized by variable pressure field emission scanning electron microscope (VP-FE-SEM). Alendronate was released in a sustained manner. For evaluating osteoblast functions in MG-63 cells, we investigated cell proliferation, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, and calcium deposition. Furthermore, for evaluating inhibition of osteoclast differentiation in RAW 264.7 cells, we investigated tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) activity, TRAP staining, and gene expressions. The in vitro studies revealed that osteoblasts grown on alendronate-loaded chitosan scaffold showed a significant increment in cell proliferation, ALP activity, and calcium deposition as compared to those grown on chitosan scaffolds. In addition, the in vitro study showed that osteoclast differentiation in RAW 264.7 cells cultured on alendronate-loaded chitosan scaffolds was greatly inhibited as compared to those cultured on chitosan scaffolds by the results of TRAP activity, TRAP staining, and gene expressions. Taken together, alendronate-loaded chitosan scaffolds could achieve the dual functions of improvement in osteoblast functions and inhibition of osteoclast differentiation. Thus, alendronate-eluting chitosan substrates are promising materials for enhancing osteoblast functions and inhibiting osteoclast differentiation in orthopedic and dental fields.

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