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Stroke induces rapid activation and expansion of microglia, but the main source of microgliosis is controversial. Here we investigated the formation of microgliosis and infiltration of circulating cells in a photothrombosis stroke model by taking advantage of parabiosis and two-photon microscopy. We found that a small population of blood-derived CX3CR1(GFP/+) cells infiltrated the cerebral parenchyma, but these cells did not proliferate and were phenotypically distinguishable from resident microglia. CX3CR1(GFP/+) infiltrating cells also displayed different kinetics from reactive microglia. The number of CX3CR1(GFP/+) infiltrating cells peaked on Day 5 after stroke and then decreased. The decline of these infiltrating cells was associated with an active apoptotic process. In contrast, reactive microglia were recruited to the ischaemic area continuously during the first week after stroke induction. Immunohistology and in vivo two-photon imaging revealed that cells involved in the process of microgliosis were mainly derived from proliferating resident microglia. Expansion of microglia exhibited a consistent pattern and our in vivo data demonstrated for the first time that microglia underwent active division in regions surrounding the ischaemic core. Together, these results indicated that CX3CR1(GFP/+) infiltrating cells and reactive microglia represented two distinct populations of cells with different functions and therapeutic potentials for the treatment of stroke.

It has been reported that the phosphorylated form of histone variant H2AX (γH2AX) plays an important role in the recruitment of DNA repair and checkpoint proteins to sites of DNA damage, particularly at double strand breaks (DSBs). Using γH2AX foci formation as an indicator for DNA damage, several chemicals/stress factors were chosen to assess their ability to induce γH2AX foci in a 24 h time frame in a human amnion FL cell line. Two direct-acting genotoxins, methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) and N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU), can induce γH2AX foci formation in a time-and dose-dependent manner. Similarly, an indirect-acting genotoxin, benzo[a]pyrene (BP), also induced the formation of γH2AX foci in a time-and dose-dependent manner. Another indirect genotoxin, 2-acetyl-aminofluorene (AAF), did not induce γH2AX foci formation in FL cells; however, AAF can induce γH2AX foci formation in Chinese hamster CHL cells. Neutral comet assays also revealed the induction of DNA strand breaks by these agents. In contrast, epigenetic carcinogens azathioprine and cyclosporine A, as well as non-carcinogen dimethyl sulfoxide, did not induce γH2AX foci formation in FL cells. In addition, heat shock and hypertonic saline did not induce γH2AX foci. Cell survival analyses indicated that the induction of γH2AX is not correlated with the cytotoxic effects of these agents/factors. Taken together, these results suggest that γH2AX foci formation could be used for evaluating DNA damage; however, the different cell types used may play an important role in determining γH2AX foci formation induced by a specific agent.

Comet assay is a useful technique in the detection of DNA damages, particularly DNA strand breaks; and it has been utilized to show that a potent carcinogen N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG), can induce such damages. Recently, gammaH2AX foci formation has been suggested as another sensitive way to detect DNA double strand breaks (DSBs). However, there is no systematic comparison being conducted to evaluate the consistency of these two methods. Using MNNG as a model chemical, the sensitivity of neutral comet assay and gammaH2AX foci formation in detecting MNNG-induced damage was studied. It was found that at concentrations of 0.1 and 1 microg/ml, both methods can detect MNNG-induced damage in human amnion FL cells. However, at 0.1 microg/ml, comet assay revealed more percentage of cells with DNA damage than gammaH2AX fluorescence revealed. On the other hand, while gammaH2AX foci were readily formed at very early times by 10 microg/ml MNNG treatment, neutral comet assay did not detect any significant DNA damage at the same time points. In addition, 10 microg/ml MNNG induced a distinct whole nuclei staining pattern of gammaH2AX, a type of DNA damage which was not detected by neutral comet assay but could be detected by alkaline comet assay. Therefore, gammaH2AX may be used as a sensitive indicator for DNA damage.

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Gatekeeper T790 M mutation in EGFR is the most prevalent factor underlying acquired resistance. Acrylamide-bearing quinazoline derivatives are powerful irreversible inhibitors for overcoming resistance. Nevertheless, concerns about the risk of nonspecific covalent modification have motivated the development of novel cysteine-targeting inhibitors. In this paper, we demonstrate that fluoro-substituted olefins can be tuned to alter Michael addition reactivity. Incorporation of these olefins into the quinazoline templates produced potent EGFR inhibitors with improved safety and pharmacokinetic properties. A lead compound 5a was validated against EGFR(WT), EGFR(T790M) as well as A431 and H1975 cancer cell lines. Additionally, compound 5a displayed a weaker inhibition against the EGFR-independent cancer cell line SW620 when compared with afatinib. Oral administration of 5a at a dose of 30 mg/kg induced tumor regression in a murine-EGFR(L858R/T790M) driven H1975 xenograft model. Also, 5a exhibited improved oral bioavailability and safety as well as favorable tissue distribution properties and enhanced brain uptake. These findings provide the basis of a promising strategy toward the treatment of NSCLC patients with drug resistance.