Tumor metastasis remains the major cause of cancer-related death, but its molecular basis is still not well understood. Here we uncovered a splicing-mediated pathway that is essential for breast cancer metastasis. We show that the RNA-binding protein heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein M (hnRNPM) promotes breast cancer metastasis by activating the switch of alternative splicing that occurs during epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Genome-wide deep sequencing analysis suggests that hnRNPM potentiates TGFb signaling and identifies CD44 as a key downstream target of hnRNPM. hnRNPM ablation prevents TGFb-induced EMT and inhibits breast cancer metastasis in mice, whereas enforced expression of the specific CD44 standard (CD44s) splice isoform overrides the loss of hnRNPM and permits EMT and metastasis. Mechanistically, we demonstrate that the ubiquitously expressed hnRNPM acts in a mesenchymal-specific manner to precisely control CD44 splice isoform switching during EMT. This restricted cell-type activity of hnRNPM is achieved by competition with ESRP1, an epithelial splicing regulator that binds to the same cis-regulatory RNA elements as hnRNPM and is repressed during EMT. Importantly, hnRNPM is associated with aggressive breast cancer and correlates with increased CD44s in patient specimens. These findings demonstrate a novel molecular mechanism through which tumor metastasis is endowed by the hnRNPM-mediated splicing program.

Metastasis portends a poor prognosis for cancer patients. Primary tumor cells disseminate through the bloodstream before the appearance of detectable metastatic lesions. The analysis of cancer cells in blood-so-called circulating tumor cells (CTCs)-may provide unprecedented opportunities for metastatic risk assessment and investigation. NanoFlares are nanoconstructs that enable livecell detection of intracellular mRNA. NanoFlares, when coupled with flow cytometry, can be used to fluorescently detect genetic markers of CTCs in the context of whole blood. They allow one to detect as few as 100 live cancer cells per mL of blood and subsequently culture those cells. This technique can also be used to detect CTCs in a murine model of metastatic breast cancer. As such, NanoFlares provide, to our knowledge, the first genetic-based approach for detecting, isolating, and characterizing live cancer cells from blood and may provide new opportunities for cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and personalized therapy.cancer metastasis | nanotechnology | diagnostic | mRNA | NanoFlares

Background:The Epithelial Splicing Regulatory Protein 1 (ESRP1) prevents CD44 splice isoform switching during epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a developmental process frequently reactivated in cancer progression. Results: Snail represses ESRP1 transcription, thus promoting CD44 isoform switching during EMT. Conclusion: Repression by Snail of ESRP1 transcription is required for EMT to occur. Significance: Investigating mechanisms that regulate alternative splicing during EMT will facilitate our understanding of the EMT associated with cancer recurrence and metastasis.

Infantile globoid cell leukodystrophy (GLD, Krabbe disease) is a fatal demyelinating disorder caused by a deficiency in the lysosomal enzyme galactosylceramidase (GALC). GALC deficiency leads to the accumulation of the cytotoxic glycolipid, galactosylsphingosine (psychosine). Complementary evidence suggested that psychosine is synthesized via an anabolic pathway. Here, we show instead that psychosine is generated catabolically through the deacylation of galactosylceramide by acid ceramidase (ACDase). This reaction uncouples GALC deficiency from psychosine accumulation, allowing us to test the long-standing “psychosine hypothesis.” We demonstrate that genetic loss of ACDase activity (Farber disease) in the GALC-deficient mouse model of human GLD (twitcher) eliminates psychosine accumulation and cures GLD. These data suggest that ACDase could be a target for substrate reduction therapy (SRT) in Krabbe patients. We show that pharmacological inhibition of ACDase activity with carmofur significantly decreases psychosine accumulation in cells from a Krabbe patient and prolongs the life span of the twitcher (Twi) mouse. Previous SRT experiments in the Twi mouse utilized l-cycloserine, which inhibits an enzyme several steps upstream of psychosine synthesis, thus altering the balance of other important lipids. Drugs that directly inhibit ACDase may have a more acceptable safety profile due to their mechanistic proximity to psychosine biogenesis. In total, these data clarify our understanding of psychosine synthesis, confirm the long-held psychosine hypothesis, and provide the impetus to discover safe and effective inhibitors of ACDase to treat Krabbe disease.

The ability for tumor cells to spread and metastasize to distant organs requires proteolytic degradation of extracellular matrix (ECM). This activity is mediated by invadopodia, actin-rich membrane protrusions that are enriched for proteases. However, the mechanisms underlying invadopodia activity are not fully understood. Here, we report that a specific CD44 splice isoform, CD44s, is an integral component in invadopodia. We show that CD44s, but not another splice isoform CD44v, is localized in invadopodia. Small hairpin (sh) RNA-mediated depletion of CD44s abolishes invadopodia activity, prevents matrix degradation and decreases tumor cell invasiveness. Our results suggest that CD44s promotes cortactin phosphorylation and recruits MT1-MMP (also known as MMP14) to sites of matrix degradation, which are important activities for invadopodia function. Importantly, we show that depletion of CD44s inhibits breast cancer cell metastasis to the lung in animals. These findings suggest a crucial mechanism underlying the role of the CD44s splice isoform in breast cancer metastasis.