Nitrogen oxides (NO
x
) are a key precursor
in O3 formation. Although stringent anthropogenic NO
x
emission controls have been implemented
since the early 2000s in the United States, several rural regions
of California still suffer from O3 pollution. Previous
findings suggest that soils are a dominant source of NO
x
emissions in California; however, a statewide assessment
of the impacts of soil NO
x
emission (SNO
x
) on air quality is still lacking. Here we
quantified the contribution of SNO
x
to
the NO
x
budget and the effects of SNO
x
on surface O3 in California during
summer by using WRF-Chem with an updated SNO
x
scheme, the Berkeley Dalhousie Iowa Soil NO Parameterization
(BDISNP). The model with BDISNP shows a better agreement with TROPOMI
NO2 columns, giving confidence in the SNO
x
estimates. We estimate that 40.1% of the state’s total
NO
x
emissions in July 2018 are from soils,
and SNO
x
could exceed anthropogenic sources
over croplands, which accounts for 50.7% of NO
x
emissions. Such considerable amounts of SNO
x
enhance the monthly mean NO2 columns by 34.7% (53.3%)
and surface NO2 concentrations by 176.5% (114.0%), leading
to an additional 23.0% (23.2%) of surface O3 concentration
in California (cropland). Our results highlight the cobenefits of
limiting SNO
x
to help improve air quality
and human health in rural California.
The development of nanomedicine is expected to provide an innovative direction for addressing challenges associated with multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria. In the past decades, although nanotechnology-based phototherapy has been developed for antimicrobial treatment since it rarely causes bacterial resistance, the clinical application of single-mode phototherapy has been limited due to poor tissue penetration of light sources. Therefore, combinatorial strategies are being developed. In this review, we first summarized the current phototherapy agents, which were classified into two functional categories: organic phototherapy agents (
e.g.,
small molecule photosensitizers, small molecule photosensitizer-loaded nanoparticles and polymer-based photosensitizers) and inorganic phototherapy agents (
e.g.,
carbo-based nanomaterials, metal-based nanomaterials, composite nanomaterials and quantum dots). Then the development of emerging phototherapy-based combinatorial strategies, including combination with chemotherapy, combination with chemodynamic therapy, combination with gas therapy, and multiple combination therapy, are presented and future directions are further discussed. The purpose of this review is to highlight the potential of phototherapy to deal with bacterial infections and to propose that the combination therapy strategy is an effective way to solve the challenges of single-mode phototherapy.
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.