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Colorectal carcinogenesis is a complex, multistep process involving genetic alterations and progressive changes in signaling pathways regulating intestinal epithelial cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Although cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), and its receptor, GRP-R, are not normally expressed by the epithelial cells lining the human colon, the levels of all three proteins are aberrantly overexpressed in premalignant adenomatous polyps and colorectal carcinomas of humans. Overexpression of these proteins is associated with altered epithelial cell growth, adhesion, and tumor cell invasiveness, both in vitro and in vivo; however, a mechanistic link between GRP-R-mediated signaling pathways and increased COX-2 overexpression has not been established. We report that bombesin, a homolog of GRP, potently stimulates the expression of COX-2 mRNA and protein as well as the release of prostaglandin E 2 from a rat intestinal epithelial cell line engineered to express GRP-R. Bombesin stimulation of COX-2 expression requires an increase in [Ca 2؉ ] i , activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)-1 and -2 and p38 MAPK , and increased activation and expression of the transcription factors Elk-1, ATF-2, c-Fos, and c-Jun. These data suggest that the expression of GRP-R in intestinal epithelial cells may play a role in carcinogenesis by stimulating COX-2 overexpression through an activator protein-1-dependent pathway.Colorectal cancers are the third leading cause of cancer deaths in the United States (1). One in 20 Americans is at risk of developing this disease during their lifetime. Considerable experimental data have accumulated indicating an important role for cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) 1 in colorectal carcinogenesis. COX-2 is a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins from arachidonic acid and is overexpressed in 85-90% of human colon cancers and 40 -50% of premalignant adenomas (2). Several large epidemiological studies have shown that mortality from colorectal cancers decreases (40 -50%) in persons who regularly take aspirin or other nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (3), which inhibit COX activity. Additionally, experiments with adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) gene-deficient mice (Min mice) revealed that inhibition of COX activity with nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs resulted in a reduction in the number and multiplicity of spontaneously formed tumors (4 -6), and APC ⌬716 /COX-2 double-knockout mice showed reduction in both the neoplastic growth and number of intestinal tumors (7). Although mounting evidence supports an important role for COX-2 in colorectal carcinogenesis, the molecular mechanisms leading to COX-2 overexpression in intestinal epithelial cells are not completely understood.Like COX-2, the mammalian homologue of bombesin (BBS), gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) and its cognate G-protein-coupled receptor, GRP receptor (GRP-R), are aberrantly overexpressed in premalignant adenomatous polyps and colorectal cancers. Preston et al. (8) showed...

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGF-R) is an important target in anticancer therapy. Here we report how a novel EGF-R peptide ligand (D4: Leu-Ala-Arg-Leu-Leu-Thr) is identified using a computer-aided design approach from a virtual peptide library of putative EGF-R binding peptides by screening against the EGF-R X-ray crystal structure in silico and in vitro. The selected peptide is conjugated with a polyethylene glycol (PEG) lipid, and the lipid moiety of the peptide-PEG-lipid conjugate is inserted into liposome membranes by a postmodification process. D4 peptide-conjugated liposomes are found to bind to and enter cells by endocytosis specifically and efficiently in vitro in a process apparently mediated by EGF-R high-expressing cancer cells (H1299). In vivo, the D4 peptide-conjugated liposomes are found to accumulate in EGF-R-expressing xenograft tumor tissues up to 80 h after intravenous delivery, in marked contrast to controls. These results demonstrate how structure-based peptide design can be an efficient approach to identify highly novel binding ligands against important receptors. These data could have important consequences for the development of peptide-directed drug delivery systems with engineered specificities and prolonged times of action.

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Physiological evidence for the involvement of peptide YY in the regulation of energy homeostasis in humans. Obesity. 2006;14:1562-1570. Objective: To explore the potential role of the endogenous peptide YY (PYY) in the long-term regulation of body weight and energy homeostasis. Research Methods and Procedures: Fasting and postprandial plasma PYY concentrations were measured after an overnight fast and 30 to 180 minutes after a standardized meal in 29 (21 men/8 women) non-diabetic subjects, 16 of whom had a follow-up visit 10.8 Ϯ 1.4 months later. Ratings of hunger and satiety were collected using visual analog scales. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) (15-hour RMR) and respiratory quotient (RQ) were assessed using a respiratory chamber. Results: Fasting PYY concentrations were negatively correlated with various markers of adiposity and negatively associated with 15-hour RMR (r ϭ Ϫ0.46, p ϭ 0.01). Postprandial changes in PYY (area under the curve) were positively associated with postprandial changes in ratings of satiety (r ϭ 0.47, p ϭ 0.01). The maximal PYY concentrations achieved after the meal (peak PYY) were negatively associated with 24-hour RQ (r ϭ Ϫ0.41, p ϭ 0.03). Prospectively, the peak PYY concentrations were negatively associated with changes in body weight (r ϭ Ϫ0.58, p ϭ 0.01). Discussion: Our data indicate that the endogenous PYY may be involved in the long-term regulation of body weight. It seems that this long-term effect was not exclusively driven by the modulation of food intake but also by the control of energy expenditure and lipid metabolism.

GUO, YAN, PAUL W. FRANKS, THOMAS BROOKSHIRE, AND P. ANTONIO TATARANNI. The intra-and interinstrument reliability of DXA based on ex vivo soft tissue measurements. Obes Res. 2004;12:1925-1929. Objective: Comparison of ex-vivo soft tissue measurements using the GE/Lunar pencil (DPX-L; GE/Lunar Co., Madison, WI) and fan beam (Prodigy dual-energy X-ray absorptiometers (DXA) GE/Lunar Co.). Research Methods and Procedures: Intra-instrument reliability was assessed by repeatedly scanning soft tissue phantoms for lean tissue (water) and fat tissue (methanol) using one DPX-L and two identical Prodigy DXAs at fast, medium, and slow scan modes. For each machine, 10 scans of each phantom were performed at each scan speed. The number of scans per instrument totaled 60. Data were analyzed using ANOVA to ascertain whether scan speed affected the intra-instrument reliability and to test whether soft tissue measurements differed among instruments. Percentage fat (phantom density) was the outcome variable. Results: Intra-instrument reliability, expressed as coefficient of variation, ranged between 0.7% and 5.2% for the DPX-L and 0.4% and 4.5% for the Prodigy, with the lowest coefficients of variation observed when scanning the fat tissue phantom. Scan speed also affected the intra-instrument reliability (p Ͻ 0.01). Furthermore, differences in the measurement of percentage body fat for both the lean and fat tissue phantoms were observed among all three absorptiometers (all p Ͻ 0.01).After adjusting for scan speed, differences persisted for all three instruments. Discussion: Intra-and inter-instrument reliability of DXA machines, even those from the same manufacturer, remains unpredictable. Thus, when measuring body composition using DXA, it is important to consider that even in the absence of measurement bias, the use of different DXA machines, particularly when using a variety of speed settings, will increase the residual error around the true value.

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