Abstract-Limitation of infarct size by ischemic/pharmacological pre-and postconditioning involves activation of a complex set of cell-signaling pathways. Multiple lines of evidence implicate the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) as a key end effector of ischemic/pharmacological pre-and postconditioning. Increasing the ROS threshold for mPTP induction enhances the resistance of cardiomyocytes to oxidant stress and results in infarct size reduction. Here, we survey and synthesize the present knowledge about the role of glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3␤ in cardioprotection, including pre-and postconditioning. Activation of a wide spectrum of cardioprotective signaling pathways is associated with phosphorylation and inhibition of a discrete pool of GSK-3␤ relevant to mitochondrial signaling. Therefore, GSK-3␤ has emerged as the integration point of many of these pathways and plays a central role in transferring protective signals downstream to target(s) that act at or in proximity to the mPTP. Bcl-2 family proteins and mPTP-regulatory elements, such as adenine nucleotide translocator and cyclophilin D (possibly voltage-dependent anion channel), may be the functional downstream target(s) of GSK-3␤. Gaining a better understanding of these interactions to control and prevent mPTP induction when appropriate will enable us to decrease the negative impact of the reperfusion-induced ROS burst on the fate of mitochondria and perhaps allow us to limit propagation of damage throughout and between cells and consequently, to better limit infarct size. Key Words: mitochondria Ⅲ ROS-induced ROS release Ⅲ permeability transition pore T issue reperfusion after ischemia, although ultimately necessary for cell survival, is a "double-edged sword" because it is also associated with further damage, known as reperfusion injury. 1 Once the artery blockage is removed, blood flow-triggered reoxygenation aggravates the injury experienced during the ischemia, resulting in further cell damage. A similar process can be mimicked in experimental settings, eg, in isolated cardiomyocytes or neurons exposed to prolonged hypoxia followed by reoxygenation. The lack of oxygen results in a situation in which the restoration of circulation rapidly leads to oxidative damage through the induction of excess oxidative stress. Therefore, the improvement in tissue function and survival after reperfusion has often been substantially negatively affected by this damaging phenomenon.Reperfusion-induced elevation in cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS), mostly in and around mitochondria 2 (reviewed elsewhere 3,4 ) can trigger opening of the so-called mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP), that is accompanied by the immediate dissipation of the mitochondrial membrane potential, ⌬ m , with detrimental consequences for the affected mitochondrion (originally proven by Griffiths and Halestrap 5 ). We have developed a method to quantify the mPTP susceptibility to ROS induction in individual mitochondria inside intact cardiomyocytes. Using t...

The 'mitochondrial permeability transition', characterized by a sudden induced change of the inner mitochondrial membrane permeability for water as well as for small substances (

Background: The time variation between consecutive heartbeats is commonly referred to as heart rate variability (HRV). Loss of complexity in HRV has been documented in several cardiovascular diseases and has been associated with an increase in morbidity and mortality. However, the mechanisms that control HRV are not well understood. Animal experiments are the key to investigating this question. However, to date, there are no standard open source tools for HRV analysis of mammalian electrocardiogram (ECG) data and no centralized public databases for researchers to access.Methods: We created an open source software solution specifically designed for HRV analysis from ECG data of multiple mammals, including humans. We also created a set of public databases of mammalian ECG signals (dog, rabbit and mouse) with manually corrected R-peaks (>170,000 annotations) and signal quality annotations. The platform (software and databases) is called PhysioZoo.Results: PhysioZoo makes it possible to load ECG data and perform very accurate R-peak detection (F1 > 98%). It also allows the user to manually correct the R-peak locations and annotate low signal quality of the underlying ECG. PhysioZoo implements state of the art HRV measures adapted for different mammals (dogs, rabbits, and mice) and allows easy export of all computed measures together with standard data representation figures. PhysioZoo provides databases and standard ranges for all HRV measures computed on healthy, conscious humans, dogs, rabbits, and mice at rest. Study of these measures across different mammals can provide new insights into the complexity of heart rate dynamics across species.Conclusion: PhysioZoo enables the standardization and reproducibility of HRV analysis in mammalian models through its open source code, freely available software, and open access databases. PhysioZoo will support and enable new investigations in mammalian HRV research. The source code and software are available on www.physiozoo.com.

Beneficial clinical bradycardic effects of ivabradine (IVA) have been interpreted solely on the basis of If inhibition, because IVA specifically inhibits If in sinoatrial nodal pacemaker cells (SANC). However, it has been recently hypothesized that SANC normal automaticity is regulated by crosstalk between an “M clock,” the ensemble of surface membrane ion channels, and a “Ca2+ clock,” the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). We tested the hypothesis that crosstalk between the two clocks regulates SANC automaticity, and that indirect suppression of the Ca2+ clock further contributes to IVA-induced bradycardia. IVA (3μM) not only reduced If amplitude by 45±6% in isolated rabbit SANC, but the IVA-induced slowing of the action potential (AP) firing rate was accompanied by reduced SR Ca2+ load, slowed intracellular Ca2+ cycling kinetics, and prolonged the period of spontaneous local Ca2+ releases (LCRs) occurring during diastolic depolarization. Direct and specific inhibition of SERCA2 by cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) had effects similar to IVA on LCR period and AP cycle length. Specifically, the LCR period and AP cycle length shift toward longer times almost equally by either direct perturbations of the M clock (IVA) or the Ca2+ clock (CPA), indicating that the LCR period reports the crosstalk between the clocks. Our numerical model simulations predict that entrainment between the two clocks that involves a reduction in INCX during diastolic depolarization is required to explain the experimentally AP firing rate reduction by IVA. In summary, our study provides new evidence that a coupled-clock system regulates normal cardiac pacemaker cell automaticity. Thus, IVA-induced bradycardia includes a suppression of both clocks within this system.

At the beginning of this century, debates regarding “what are the main control mechanisms that ignite the action potential (AP) in heart pacemaker cells” dominated the electrophysiology field. The original theory which prevailed for over 50 years had advocated that the ensemble of surface membrane ion channels (i.e., “M-clock”) is sufficient to ignite rhythmic APs. However, more recent experimental evidence in a variety of mammals has shown that the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) acts as a “Ca2+-clock” rhythmically discharges diastolic local Ca2+ releases (LCRs) beneath the cell surface membrane. LCRs activate an inward current (likely that of the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger) that prompts the surface membrane “M-clock” to ignite an AP. Theoretical and experimental evidence has mounted to indicate that this clock “crosstalk” operates on a beat-to-beat basis and determines both the AP firing rate and rhythm. Our review is focused on the evolution of experimental definition and numerical modeling of the coupled-clock concept, on how mechanisms intrinsic to pacemaker cell determine both the heart rate and rhythm, and on future directions to develop further the coupled-clock pacemaker cell concept.