Small ruminants represent an important component of the Ethiopian livestock production system, providing 12% of the value of livestock products consumed at the farm level and 48% of the cash income generated. Ethiopia is second in Africa and sixth in the world in terms of sheep population. The country has, however, benefited little from this enormous resource owing to a multitude of problems, disease being the most important. Disease alone accounts for mortalities of 30% in lambs and 20% in adults. Productivity losses attributable to helminth parasites are often substantial. A loss of US $ 81.8 million is reported annually due to helminth parasites. In a country confronted with challenges of an ever-rising human population and food shortage, such enormous losses caused by helminth parasites, 'the silent predators', are intolerable. Therefore, helminth control should receive special attention in poverty reduction strategies through improved productivity of livestock if the present and future challenges of food shortage are to be addressed. Productivity loss due to helminth infections can be substantially reduced through implementation of effective disease control strategies, which require an understanding of the epidemiology and ecology of parasites and parasitic infections under local conditions. This paper reviews extensive evidence demonstrating that helminthosis is a major constraint to productivity of sheep in Ethiopia. It also discusses epidemiology and ecology of major helminth parasites in the country and suggests strategies for improved control in various agro-ecological zones and production systems.

H5N1, a highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N1 HPAI), is an endemic disease that is significant for public health in Egypt. Live bird markets (LBMs) are widespread in Egypt and play an important role in HPAI disease dynamics. The aim of the study was to evaluate the H5N1 HPAI prevalence in representative LBMs from 2009 to 2014, assess the effects of other variables and evaluate past outbreaks and human cases. It was found that ducks and geese are high-risk species and that the prevalence of H5N1 HPAI was higher immediately after the political crises of 2011. The end of a calendar year (June to December) was a high-risk period for positive samples, and the risk in urban LBMs was twice the risk in rural LBMs. Winter and political unrest was associated with higher H5N1 HPAI prevalence. Both human and poultry populations will continue to rise in Egypt, so continued poultry outbreaks are likely to be linked to more human cases. LBMs will continue to play a role in the dynamics of poultry disease in Egypt, and there is a need to reorganize markets in terms of biosecurity and traceability. It may also be beneficial to reduce inter-governorate inter-regional movements associated with poultry trade through promotion of regional trade or in the alternative provide sanitary features along the poultry market chain to reduce the speed of H5N1 HPAI infections. Policy formulation, design and enforcement must be pro-poor, and consideration of the sociocultural and economic realities in Egypt is important. The LBMs provide ideal platforms to carry out sound surveillance plans and mitigate zoonotic risks of H5N1 HPAI to humans.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus of the H5N1 subtype has been enzootic in the Egyptian poultry with significant human infections since 2008. This work evaluates the epidemiological and virological information from February 2006 to May 2015 in spatial and temporal terms. Only data with confirmed HPAI H5N1 sub-type were collected, and matched with the epidemiological data from various spatially and temporally-dispersed surveillances implemented between 2006 and 2015. Spatio-temporal analysis was conducted on a total of 3338 confirmed H5N1 HPAI poultry disease outbreaks and outputs described based on transmission patterns, poultry species, production types affected, trade, geographic and temporal distributions in Egypt. The H5N1 virus persists in the Egyptian poultry displaying a seasonal pattern with peak prevalence between January and March. There was no specific geographic pattern, but chickens and ducks were more affected. However, relatively higher disease incidences were recorded in the Nile Delta. Phylogenetic studies of the haemagglutinin gene sequences of H5N1 viruses indicated that multiple clusters circulated between 2006 and 2015, with significant deviations in circulation. Epidemiological dynamics of HPAI has changed with the origins of majority of outbreaks shifted to household poultry. The persistence of HPAI H5N1 in poultry with recurrent and sporadic infections in humans can influence virus evolution spatio-temporally. Household poultry plays significant roles in the H5N1 virus transmission to poultry and humans, but the role of commercial poultry needs further clarifications. While poultry trading supports the persistence and transmission of H5N1, the role of individual species may warrant further investigation. Surveillance activities, applying a multi-sectoral approach, are recommended.

Hydatidosis/echinococcosis (Echinococcus granulosus, Batsch, 1786) is considered to be a serious problem for both public health and the livestock economy in Ethiopia. The present paper reviews and summarizes available data on the disease. Abattoir survey data collected over a period of 15 years (1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999) were analyzed to assess the infection prevalence of hydatidosis in domestic animals in three different agroecological zones of Ethiopia. Accordingly, 8036/22,863 (35.15%) cattle, 768/6518 (11.78%) sheep, 36/1753 (4.9%) goats, 70/417 (16.79%) camels and 0/150 (0%) pigs slaughtered in 21 different abattoirs located in various parts of the country were found harbouring hydatid cysts. A statistical discernible significant difference (p<0.001) was observed in the overall hydatidosis infection prevalence between the different species of animals, and in infection prevalence of bovine hydatidosis in the three agroecological zones where the slaughtered cattle were believed to originate from. Similarly, a statistically significant difference (p<0.01) in the prevalence of ovine hydatidosis was observed between mid-altitude and lowland agroecologies. Conversely, there was no significant difference (p>0.20) in the infection prevalence of caprine hydatidosis between mid-altitude and lowlands. The present study reconfirms that hydatid disease is widespread and highly prevalent in ruminant livestock in Ethiopia and warrants institution of a nation-wide control measures. Considerations on experiences of other countries with respect to the economic benefits that hydatid disease control programs may bring to livestock producers and combining such efforts with other zoonosis control schemes in view of the 'one health' initiative is worthy for animal health planners and policy decision-makers. The paper also serves as a quick reference source on hydatidosis in the country and basis for future studies.

Participatory surveillance (PS) is the application of participatory rural appraisal methods to the collection of epidemiological information to inform decision-making and action. It was applied in Africa and Asia as part of emergency programs to address the H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) pandemic. The approach resulted in markedly increased case detection in countries experiencing HPAI, and a better understanding of the epidemiological situation. Where HPAI was absent and PS was implemented, the method did not result in false positives and contributed to the overall epidemiological assessment that the country was free of disease. It was noted that clarity of surveillance objectives and resulting data needs at the outset was essential to optimize the balance of surveillance methods, size of the program and costs. The quality of training programs and adherence to international guidelines on good PS training practice were important for assuring the competence of PS practitioners. Orientation of senior decision-makers was an important step in assuring effective program management and appropriate use of results. As a problem-solving methodology, PS is best used to rapidly assess situations and inform strategy. Several countries continued PS after the end of projects and went on to apply PS to other health challenges.

The effectiveness of recombinant turkey herpesvirus avian influenza (A/swan/Hungary/4999/2006(H5N1)) clade 2.2 virus (rHVT-H5) vaccine was evaluated in two layer chicken breeds (White Bovans [WB] and Brown Shaver [BS]). One dose of rHVT-H5 vaccine was administered at day 1 and birds were monitored serologically (haemagglutination inhibition test) and virologically for 19 weeks. Maternally-derived antibody and post-vaccination H5 antibody titres were measured using the Chinese (A/Goose/Guangdong/1/96(H5N1)) HA and the Egyptian (A/chicken/Egypt/128s/2012(H5N1)) HA as antigens. The challenge was conducted at 19 weeks of age and on six experimental groups: Groups I (WB) and II (BS), both vaccinated and challenged; Groups III (WB) and IV (BS), both vaccinated but not challenged; Groups V and VI, unvaccinated specific pathogen free chickens, serving respectively as positive and negative controls. The challenge virus was the clade 2.2.1 highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 A/chicken/Egypt/128s/2012 at a dose of 10(6) median embryo infective dose. For both breeds, complete maternally-derived antibody waning occurred at the age of 4 weeks. The immune response to rHVT-H5 vaccination was detected from the sixth week. The seroconversion rates for both breeds reached 85.7 to 100% in the eighth week of age. Protection levels of 73.3%, 60% and 0% were respectively recorded in Groups I, II and V. No mortalities occurred in the unchallenged groups. Group I showed superior results for all measured post-challenge parameters. In conclusion, a single rHVT-H5 hatchery vaccination conferred a high level of protection for a relatively extended period. This vaccine could be an important tool for future A/H5N1 prevention/control in endemic countries. Further studies on persistence of immunity beyond 19 weeks, need for booster with inactivated vaccines, breed susceptibility and vaccinal response, and transmissibility are recommended.

(2015) Comparison of the effectiveness of rHVT-H5, inactivated H5 and rHVT-H5 with inactivated H5 prime/boost vaccination regimes in commercial broiler chickens carrying MDAs against HPAI H5N1 clade 2.2.1 virus, Avian Pathology, 44:5, 333-341, DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2015 Vaccination is the main tool implemented in Egypt since 2007 to control H5N1 avian influenza. The present study aimed at comparing the effectiveness of three avian influenza vaccination regimes in commercial broiler chickens carrying high levels of maternally derived antibodies (MDAs). Day-old chicks were divided into four experimental groups. Group I received only the rHVT-H5 vaccine (recombinant turkey herpesvirus (HVT) which carries a H5 clade 2.2 insert) administered at D1. Group II received only the KV-H5 (an oil emulsion killed vaccine prepared from reassortant HPAI virus (A/duck/Anhui/1/06)) vaccine (inactivated reverse genetic H5N1 clade 2.3.4 virus) administered at D8. Group III received rHVT-H5 and KV-H5 as prime/boost. Group IV served as unvaccinated control. Weekly serological monitoring was conducted using the haemagglutination inhibition test. Two challenge experiments were conducted at D28 and D35 using HPAI H5N1 clade 2.2.1 virus. Birds were monitored daily 14 days post-challenge for morbidity and mortality, and oropharyngeal swabs were collected for virological monitoring. Initially, day-old chicks had high mean MDA titres (9 + 0.9 log 2 ). The MDA half-life was >7 and <7 days, respectively, for unvaccinated and vaccinated birds. Group III showed the highest post-vaccination humoral immune response and seroconversion rate. The highest protection rate against morbidity (80-90%) and mortality (90-90%) was obtained in Group III after challenge at D28 and D35, respectively, as compared to Group I (70-70%) and (80-90%) and Group II (0-0%) and (30-30%). Groups I and III had lower number of shedder birds. The vaccination regime with prime/boost conferred the highest and earliest protection, and can hence be recommended for the broiler production sector in endemic and high HPAI H5N1 challenge areas.

Post-slaughter survey data collected over a period of 15 years (1985)(1986)(1987)(1988)(1989)(1990)(1991)(1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999) by the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine (FVM), Addis Ababa University (AAU) were used as a basis for the analysis of estimation of the economic significance of bovine hydatidosis in Ethiopia. The analysis output revealed a 35.15% mean annual prevalence of bovine hydatidosis. The total estimated economic loss from organ condemnation, carcass weight and milk yield decrease amounts to 1,691,266,200 ETB (101,203,734 USD). This is equivalent to a loss of 475.40 ETB (28.45 USD) per every infected slaughtered cattle and 249.00 ETB (14.90 USD) per every infected milking cow. The results of the present study showed that hydatidosis is a highly prevalent cattle disease in Ethiopia with considerable direct and indirect economic losses. The magnitude of loss per infected subject warrants the need to mount an integrated nation-wide hydatidosis control program involving public education, canine health care, proper handling and disposal of infected organs, stray dog population management and institution of strict standard operating procedures (SOPs) in slaughterhouses and public health legislative reinforcements. The authors recommend that hydatidosis control program should be designed and implemented in the context on 'One Health' initiative by integrating it with other zoonotic disease control program and in partnerships with animal and public health actors as well as other relevant stakeholders. .