Disassembly of focal adhesions (FAs) allows cell retraction and integrin detachment from the ECM, processes critical for cell movement. Growth of MT (microtubule) can promote FA turnover by serving as tracks to deliver proteins essential for FA disassembly. The molecular nature of this FA “disassembly factor”, however, remains elusive. By quantitative proteomics, we identified MAP4K4 (mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase kinase 4) as a FA regulator that associates with MTs. Conditional knockout (cKO) of MAP4K4 in skin stabilizes FAs and impairs epidermal migration. By exploring underlying mechanisms, we further show that MAP4K4 associates with EB2, a MT binding protein, and IQSEC1, a guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) specific for Arf6, whose activation promotes integrin internalization. Together, our findings provide critical insights into FA disassembly, suggesting that MTs can deliver MAP4K4 toward FAs through EB2, where MAP4K4 can in turn activate Arf6 via IQSEC1 and enhance FA dissolution.
Effective healing of skin wounds is essential for our survival. Although skin has strong regenerative potential, dysfunctional and disfiguring scars can result from aberrant wound repair. Skin scarring involves excessive deposition and misalignment of ECM (extracellular matrix), increased cellularity, and chronic inflammation. Transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) signaling exerts pleiotropic effects on wound healing by regulating cell proliferation, migration, ECM production, and the immune response. Although blocking TGFβ signaling can reduce tissue fibrosis and scarring, systemic inhibition of TGFβ can lead to significant side effects and inhibit wound re-epithelization. In this study, we develop a wound dressing material based on an integrated photo-crosslinking strategy and a microcapsule platform with pulsatile release of TGF-β inhibitor to achieve spatiotemporal specificity for skin wounds. The material enhances skin wound closure while effectively suppressing scar formation in murine skin wounds and large animal preclinical models. Our study presents a strategy for scarless wound repair.
Turnover of focal adhesions allows cell retraction, which is essential for cell migration. The mammalian spectraplakin protein, ACF7 (Actin-Crosslinking Factor 7), promotes focal adhesion dynamics by targeting of microtubule plus ends towards focal adhesions. However, it remains unclear how the activity of ACF7 is regulated spatiotemporally to achieve focal adhesion-specific guidance of microtubule. To explore the potential mechanisms, we resolve the crystal structure of ACF7’s NT (amino-terminal) domain, which mediates F-actin interactions. Structural analysis leads to identification of a key tyrosine residue at the calponin homology (CH) domain of ACF7, whose phosphorylation by Src/FAK (focal adhesion kinase) complex is essential for F-actin binding of ACF7. Using skin epidermis as a model system, we further demonstrate that the phosphorylation of ACF7 plays an indispensable role in focal adhesion dynamics and epidermal migration in vitro and in vivo. Together, our findings provide critical insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying coordinated cytoskeletal dynamics during cell movement.
Cell migration is a fundamental cellular process requiring integrated activities of the cytoskeleton, membrane, and cell/ extracellular matrix adhesions. Many cytoskeletal activities rely on microtubule filaments. It has been speculated that microtubules can serve as tracks to deliver proteins essential for focal adhesion turnover. Three microtubule end-binding proteins (EB1, EB2, and EB3) in mammalian cells can track the plus ends of growing microtubules. EB1 and EB3 together can regulate microtubule dynamics by promoting microtubule growth and suppressing catastrophe, whereas, in contrast, EB2 does not play a direct role in microtubule dynamic instability, and little is known about the cellular function of EB2. By quantitative proteomics, we identified mammalian HCLS1-associated protein X-1 (HAX1) as an EB2-specific interacting protein. Knockdown of HAX1 and EB2 in skin epidermal cells stabilizes focal adhesions and impairs epidermal migration in vitro and in vivo. Our results further demonstrate that cell motility and focal adhesion turnover require interaction between Hax1 and EB2. Together, our findings provide new insights for this critical cellular process, suggesting that EB2 association with Hax1 plays a significant role in focal adhesion turnover and epidermal migration.Cell migration is an essential process for developmental morphogenesis, wound healing, and tumor metastasis. The intricate, multistep process of cell migration requires integrated activities of the cytoskeleton, membrane, and cell/extracellular matrix adhesions (1, 2). During the process, focal adhesion plays a critical role in establishing a connection between the extracellular matrix and the actin cytoskeleton and serves as a point of traction for the cell (1, 3-6).Microtubules are polar filaments with two structurally and functionally distinct ends, the plus end and the minus end. Interestingly, it has been well documented that microtubules can target peripheral focal adhesions (7-10), a process mediated by the mammalian spectraplakin protein ACF7 (11, 12). Furthermore, accumulating evidence has shown that the growth of microtubules can promote focal adhesion turnover by serving as tracks to deliver proteins essential for focal adhesion disassembly (7-10). For example, recently, a mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase kinase 4 (MAP4K4) 2 has been identified as a focal adhesion regulator that associates with microtubules. Knockout of MAP4K4 stabilizes focal adhesions and impairs cell migration (13).Microtubule plus end tracking proteins are a diverse group of evolutionarily conserved proteins that enrich at the growing ends (plus ends) of microtubules (14, 15). Plus end proteins have been shown to participate in different aspects of cell architecture through their function in regulating microtubule dynamics and the interaction of microtubules with other cellular structures. It has been established that the three microtubule end-binding proteins (EB1, EB2, and EB3) in mammalian cells can track the plus ends of growing microtub...
Skin serves as a protective barrier for mammals. Epidermal stem cells are responsible for maintaining skin homeostasis. When cutaneous injuries occur, skin homeostasis and integrity are damaged, leading to dire consequences such as acute, chronic, or infected wounds. Skin wound healing is an intrinsic self-saving chain reaction, which is crucial to facilitating the replacement of damaged or lost tissue. An immense amount of research has uncovered the underlying mechanisms behind the complex and highly regulated wound healing process. In this review, we will dissect the biological process of adult skin wound healing and emphasize the importance of epidermal stem cells during the wound healing. We will comprehensively discuss the current clinical practices used on patients with cutaneous wounds, including both traditional skin grafting procedures and advanced grafting techniques with cultured skin stem cells. The majority of these leading techniques still retain some deficiencies during clinical use. Moreover, the regeneration of skin appendages after severe injuries remains a challenge in treatment. Understanding epidermal stem cells and their essential functions during skin wound healing are fundamental components behind the development of clinical treatment on patients with cutaneous wounds. It is important to improve the current standard of care and to develop novel techniques improving patient outcomes and long-term rehabilitation, which should be the goals of future endeavors in the field of skin wound healing.
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