Tetrachlorobenzoquinone (TCBQ) is a downstream metabolite of pentachlorophenol (PCP). Previously, we demonstrated that TCBQ caused cytotoxicity due to mitochondrial-related apoptosis. Here, we confirmed the upregulation of death receptor 5 (DR5) followed by the construction of the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC). We also detected the activation of the caspase cascade, which was correlated with TCBQ-induced apoptotic cell death in PC12 cells. The upregulation of DR5 included transcriptional activation and de novo protein synthesis in response to TCBQ. We also identified the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) as a new target for the TCBQ challenge in PC12 cells. The protein kinase R-like ER kinase/eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2α (PERK/eIF2α)-mediated activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4)-ATF3-C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) signaling pathway contributed to the process of TCBQ-induced ER stress. Blocking ATF4, ATF3, or CHOP signaling by gene silencing technology resulted in decreased cell apoptosis after exposure to TCBQ. Finally, NAC ameliorated TCBQ-induced apoptosis and ER stress, which illustrated that TCBQ-induced apoptosis is somehow ROS-dependent. In summary, this study provided important mechanistic insight into how TCBQ utilizes ER stress-related signaling to exhibit pro-apoptotic activity in PC12 cells.

Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone (NHDC), a sweetener derived from citrus, belongs to the family of bycyclic flavonoids dihydrochalcones. NHDC has been reported to act against CCl4-induced hepatic injury, but its mechanism is still unclear. We first discovered that NHDC showed a strong ability to scavenge free radicals. In addition, NHDC induces the phase II antioxidant enzymes heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) and NAD(P)H/quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) through the activation of the nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2)/antioxidant response element (ARE) signaling. Further assays demonstrated that NHDC induces accumulation of Nrf2 in the nucleus and augmented Nrf2-ARE binding activity. Moreover, NHDC inhibits the ubiquitination of Nrf2 and suggests the modification of Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) and the disruption of the Keap1/Nrf2 complex. c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 but not extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) phosphorylations were up-regulated by NHDC treatment. Taken together, NHDC showed its protective antioxidant effect against CCl4-induced oxidative damage via the direct free radical scavenging and indirect Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a group of persistent organic pollutants. The toxic behavior and mechanism of PCBs individuals and congeners have been extensively investigated. However, there is only limited information on their metabolites. Our previous studies have shown that a synthetic PCB metabolite, PCB29-pQ, causes oxidative damage with the evidence of cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and mitochondrial-derived intrinsic apoptosis. Here, we investigate the effects of PCB29-pQ on DNA damage checkpoint activation, cell cycle arrest, and death receptor-related extrinsic apoptosis in human liver hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells. Our results illustrate that PCB29-pQ increases the S-phase cell population by down-regulating cyclins A/D1/E, cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK 2/4/6), and cell division cycle 25A (CDC25A) and up-regulating p21/p27 protein expressions. PCB29-pQ also induces apoptosis via the up-regulation of Fas/FasL and the activation of caspase 8/3. Moreover, p53 plays a pivotal role in PCB29-pQ-induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis via the activation of ATM/Chk2 and ATR/Chk1 checkpoints. Cell cycle arrest and apoptotic cell death were attenuated by the pretreatment with antioxidant N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC). Taken together, these results demonstrate that PCB29-pQ induces oxidative stress and promotes p53-dependent DNA damage checkpoint activation, S-phase cycle arrest, and extrinsic apoptosis in HepG2 cells.

No abstract

No abstract

No abstract

Organisms are able to respond to environmental insult to maintain cellular homeostasis, which include the activation of a wide range of cellular adaptive responses with tightly controlled mechanisms. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle responsible for protein folding and calcium storage. ER stress leads to the accumulation of unfolded proteins in the ER lumen. To be against or respond to this effect, cells have a comprehensive signaling system, called unfolded protein response (UPR), to restore homeostasis and normal ER function or activate the cell death program. Therefore, it is critical to understand how environmental insult regulates the ingredients of ER stress and UPR signalings. Previously, we have demonstrated that polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) quinone caused oxidative stress, cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and apoptosis in HepG2 cells. Here, we investigated the role of a PCB quinone, PCB29-pQ on ER stress, UPR, and calcium release. PCB29-pQ markedly increased the hallmark genes of ER stress, namely, glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78), GRP94, and C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) on both protein and mRNA levels in HepG2 cells. We also confirmed PCB29-pQ induced ER morphological defects by using transmission electron microscopy. Moreover, PCB29-pQ induced intracellular calcium accumulation and calpain activity, which were significantly inhibited by the pretreatment of BAPTA-AM (Ca(2+) chelator). These results were correlated with the outcome that PCB29-pQ induces ER stress-related apoptosis through caspase family gene 12, while salubrinal and Z-ATAD-FMK (a specific inhibitor of caspase 12) partially ameliorated this effect, respectively. N-Acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) scavenged ROS formation and consequently alleviated PCB29-pQ-induced expression of ER stress-related genes. In conclusion, our result demonstrated for the first time that PCB quinone leads to ROS-dependent induction of ER stress, and UPR and calcium release in HepG2 cells, and the evaluation of the perturbations of ER stress, UPR, and calcium signaling provide further information on the mechanisms of PCB-induced toxicity.

No abstract