Leptin, a hormone secreted from adipose tissue, was originally discovered to regulate body weight. The localization of the leptin receptor in limbic structures suggests a potential role for leptin in emotional processes. Here, we show that rats exposed to chronic unpredictable stress and chronic social defeat exhibit low leptin levels in plasma. Systemic leptin treatment reversed the hedoniclike deficit induced by chronic unpredictable stress and improved behavioral despair dose-dependently in the forced swim test (FST), a model widely used for screening potential antidepressant efficacy. The behavioral effects of leptin in the FST were accompanied by increased neuronal activation in limbic structures, particularly in the hippocampus. Intrahippocampal infusion of leptin produced a similar antidepressant-like effect in the FST as its systemic administration. By contrast, infusion of leptin into the hypothalamus decreased body weight but had no effect on FST behavior. These findings suggest that: (i) impaired leptin production and secretion may contribute to chronic stress-induced depression-like phenotypes, (ii) the hippocampus is a brain site mediating leptin's antidepressant-like activity, and (iii) elevating leptin signaling in brain may represent a novel approach for the treatment of depressive disorders.depression ͉ hippocampus ͉ stress ͉ forced swim test ͉ social defeat

Agouti-related protein (AGRP) is a recently discovered orexigenic neuropeptide that inhibits the binding and action of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone derived from proopiomelanocortin (POMC) at the melanocortin 3 receptor (MC3R) and melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) and has been proposed to function primarily as an endogenous melanocortin antagonist. To better understand the interplay between the AGRP and melanocortin signaling systems, we compared their nerve fiber distributions with each other by immunohistochemistry and their perikarya distribution with MC3R and MC4R by double in situ hybridization. Although deriving from distinct cell groups, AGRP and melanocortin terminals project to identical brain areas. Both AGRP and melanocortin neurons selectively express the MC3R, which provides a neuroanatomical basis for a dual-input circuit with biological amplification and feedback inhibition. These studies highlight a broader complexity in POMC-mediated behavior in the brain.

BackgroundPsoriasis impacts 1–3% of the world’s population and is characterized by hyper-proliferation of keratinocytes and increased inflammation. At the molecular level, psoriasis is commonly driven by a Th17 response, which serves as a major therapeutic target. Microbiome perturbations have been associated with several immune-mediated diseases such as atopic dermatitis, asthma, and multiple sclerosis. Although a few studies have investigated the association between the skin microbiome and psoriasis, conflicting results have been reported plausibly due to the lack of standardized sampling and profiling protocols, or to inherent microbial variability across human subjects and underpowered studies. To better understand the link between the cutaneous microbiota and psoriasis, we conducted an analysis of skin bacterial communities of 28 psoriasis patients and 26 healthy subjects, sampled at six body sites using a standardized protocol and higher sequencing depth compared to previous studies. Mouse studies were employed to examine dermal microbial-immune interactions of bacterial species identified from our study.ResultsSkin microbiome profiling based on sequencing the 16S rRNA V1–V3 variable region revealed significant differences between the psoriasis-associated and healthy skin microbiota. Comparing the overall community structures, psoriasis-associated microbiota displayed higher diversity and more heterogeneity compared to healthy skin bacterial communities. Specific microbial signatures were associated with psoriatic lesional, psoriatic non-lesional, and healthy skin. Specifically, relative enrichment of Staphylococcus aureus was strongly associated with both lesional and non-lesional psoriatic skin. In contrast, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Propionibacterium acnes were underrepresented in psoriatic lesions compared to healthy skin, especially on the arm, gluteal fold, and trunk. Employing a mouse model to further study the impact of cutaneous Staphylcoccus species on the skin T cell differentiation, we found that newborn mice colonized with Staphylococcus aureus demonstrated strong Th17 polarization, whereas mice colonized with Staphylococcus epidermidis or un-colonized controls showed no such response.ConclusionOur results suggest that microbial communities on psoriatic skin is substantially different from those on healthy skin. The psoriatic skin microbiome has increased diversity and reduced stability compared to the healthy skin microbiome. The loss of community stability and decrease in immunoregulatory bacteria such as Staphylococcus epidermidis and Propionibacterium acnes may lead to higher colonization with pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus, which could exacerbate cutaneous inflammation along the Th17 axis.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s40168-018-0533-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Stress and glucocorticoid stress hormones inhibit neurogenesis, whereas antidepressants increase neurogenesis and block stress-induced decrease of neurogenesis. Our previous studies have shown leptin, an adipocyte-derived hormone with antidepressant-like properties 1, promotes baseline neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus 2. The present study aimed to determine whether leptin is able to restore stress-induced suppression of neurogenesis in a rat chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) model of depression. Chronic treatment with leptin reversed the CUS-induced reduction of hippocampal neurogenesis and depression-like behaviors. Leptin treatment elicited delayed long-lasting antidepressant-like effects in the behavioral despair test, and this effect was blocked by ablation of neurogenesis with X-irradiation. The functional isoform of the leptin receptor, LepRb, and the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) were colocalized in hippocampal neural stem/progenitor cells in vivo and in vitro. Leptin treatment reversed the GR agonist dexamethasone (DEX)-induced reduction of proliferation of cultured neural stem/progenitor cells from adult hippocampus. Further mechanistic analysis revealed that leptin and DEX converged on GSK3β and β-catenin. DEX decreased Ser9 phosphorylation and increased Tyr216 phosphorylation of GSK3β, while leptin increased Ser9 phosphorylation and attenuated the effects of DEX at both Ser9 and Tyr216 phosphorylation sites of GSK3β. Moreover, leptin increased total level and nuclear translocation of β-catenin, a primary substrate of GSK3 β and a key regulator in controlling neural progenitor proliferation, and reversed the inhibitory effects of DEX on β-catenin. Together, our results suggest that adult neurogenesis is involved in the delayed long-lasting antidepressant-like behavioral effects of leptin, and leptin treatment counteracts chronic stress and glucocorticoid-induced suppression of hippocampal neurogenesis via activating the GSK3β/β-catenin signaling pathway.

Anglotensm-(l-7) 1s a novel pepttde of the renlnanglotensm system that counteracts the pressor and prohferatlve responses to anglotensm II We now report that cultured bovme aortlc endothellal cells contam a saturable, high-affinity ['?]anglotensm-(l-7) bmdmg site with an affmlty of 19 3% 10 7 nmol/L and a density of 1351+710 fmol/mg protem Anglotensm-(1-7) competed at a second lower-affimty site, with an IC& of 2 9 PmollL The high-affinity anglotensm II receptor antagonist sarcosmel-lsoleucme*-anglotensm II blocked ["?]anglotensm-(l-7) bmdmg to bovine aortlc endothehal cells at both a high-(ICsO= 1 3 nmol/L) and a low-affimty (I&=6 2 /Imol/L) bmdmg site In contrast, D-alanme'-anglotensm-( l-7) completely blocked ['251]anglotensm-(1-7) bmdmg, with an IC50 of 19 8 nmol/L, suggesting that D-alanme'-anglotensm-( l-7) may selectively block responses to anglotensln-(l-7) In endothehal cellsNeither the AT, antagomst losartan nor the AT2 antagonist PD 123319 exhibited slgmficant competltlon for ['251]anglotensm-(l-7) bmdmg to endothehal cells isolated from bovine aorta, m agreement with the absence of detectable mRNAs encoding typlcal anglotensm receptor subtypes I or 2 (AT, or AT2) Anglotensm II also competed for [ '251]anglotensm-( l-7) bmdmg to bovine aortlc endothehal cell?, however, the relative affinity was 13-fold lower than anglotensm-(l-7), suggestmg a preference for anglotennn-( 1-7) over anglotensm II These results demonstrate that bovi ne aortlc endothehal cells contam a unique non-AT,, non-AT2 anglotensm receptor that preferentially binds anglotensm-( l-7) (Hypertension. 1997;29[part 2]:388-393.) Key Words l angiotensin-(l-7) l angiotemin II l angiotensm receptor subtypes l endothelmm l vascular A ng-( l-7), the N-terminal heptapeptide fragment of Ang II, was identified m the plasma and &sues of animals and humans, at concentrations slmliar to Ang 11 I-6 In addition, clrculatmg levels of Ang-(l-7) increased after treatment of rats, dogs, or humans with ACE inhlbltorsl-6 or hypertensive rats with the AT, antagonist losartan 2 We showed that Ang-(l-7) 1s generated from either Ang 1 or Ang 11 by tissue endopeptldases, including neutral endopeptldase 24 11 (nepnlysm), prolyl endopeptldase, or metallopeptldase 24.15 (thlmet oligopeptldase) 7-11 Thus, Ang-( l-7) is an endogenous component of the remn-anglotensm system, and peptlde levels are significantly elevated after treatment with ACE mhlbltors or ATI receptor antagonists Ang-( l-7) was ongmally consldered an inactive product of Ang 11 metabolism, on the basis of its mablhty to mimic the dipsogemc, vasoconstrlctor, or aldosterone-secretmg actions of Ang II.12 It 1s now known that Ang-(l-7) is a biologically active peptlde hormone having dlstmct and often opposite effects from those of Ang II Ang-( l-7) stimulates the actlvlty of neuropeptlderglc neurons that regulate vasopressm production and transmltter releasel3J4 and releases prostaglandms from astrocytes, smooth muscle cells and vascular endothehal Although the characterlstlcs of an angloten...

Leptin receptors (Lepr) are expressed on midbrain dopamine neurons. However, the specific role of Lepr signaling in dopamine neurons remains to be clarified. In the present study, we generated a line of conditional knockout mice lacking functional leptin receptors selectively on dopamine neurons (LeprDAT-Cre). These mice exhibit normal body weight and feeding. Behaviorally, LeprDAT-Cre mice display an anxiogenic-like phenotype in the elevated plus-maze, light-dark box, social interaction and novelty-suppressed feeding tests. Depression-related behaviors in the chronic stress-induced anhedonia, forced swim and tail-suspension tests were not affected by deletion of Lepr in dopamine neurons. In vivo electrophysiological recordings of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) revealed an increase in burst firing in LeprDAT-Cre mice. Moreover, blockade of D1-dependent dopamine transmission in the central amygdala by local microinjection of the D1 antagonist SCH23390 attenuated the anxiogenic phenotype of LeprDAT-Cre mice. These findings suggest that leptin receptor signaling in midbrain dopamine neurons has a crucial role for the expression of anxiety and for the dopamine modulation of amygdala function.

Previous work has indicated that acute and repeated stress can alter thyroid hormone secretion. Corticosterone, the end product of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activation and strongly regulated by stress, has been suggested to play a role in hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis regulation. In the current study, we sought to further characterize HPT axis activity after repeated exposure to inescapable foot-shock stress (FS), and to examine changes in proposed regulators of the HPT axis, including plasma corticosterone and hypothalamic arcuate nucleus agouti-related protein (AGRP) mRNA levels. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to one daily session of inescapable FS for 14 days. Plasma corticosterone levels were determined during and after the stress on days 1 and 14. Animals were killed on day 15, and trunk blood and brains were collected for measurement of hormone and mRNA levels. Repeated exposure to FS led to a significant decrease in serum levels of 3,5,3′-triiodothyronine (T₃) and 3,5,3′,5′-tetraiodothyronine (T₄). Stress-induced plasma corticosterone levels were not altered by repeated exposure to the stress. Despite the decrease in peripheral hormone levels, thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) mRNA levels within the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus were not altered by the stress paradigm. Arcuate nucleus AGRP mRNA levels were significantly increased in the animals exposed to repeated FS. Additionally, we noted significant correlations between stress-induced plasma corticosterone levels and components of the HPT axis, including TRH mRNA levels and free T₄ levels. Additionally, there was a significant correlation between AGRP mRNA levels and total T₃ levels. Changes in body weight were also correlated with peripheral corticosterone and TRH mRNA levels. These results suggest that repeated exposure to mild-electric foot-shock causes a decrease in peripheral thyroid hormone levels, and that components of the HPA axis and hypothalamic AGRP may be involved in stress regulation of the HPT.

The glutamatergic system has been implicated in the pathophysiology of depression and the mechanism of action of antidepressants. Leptin, an adipocyte-derived hormone, has antidepressant-like properties. However, the functional role of leptin receptor (Lepr) signaling in glutamatergic neurons remains to be elucidated. In this study, we generated conditional knockout mice in which the long form of Lepr was ablated selectively in glutamatergic neurons located in the forebrain structures, including the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (Lepr cKO). Lepr cKO mice exhibit normal growth and body weight. Behavioral characterization of Lepr cKO mice reveals depression-like behavioral deficits, including anhedonia, behavioral despair, enhanced learned helplessness and social withdrawal, with no evident signs of anxiety. In addition, loss of Lepr in forebrain glutamatergic neurons facilitates N-methyl--aspartate (NMDA)-induced hippocampal long-term synaptic depression (LTD), whereas conventional LTD or long-term potentiation (LTP) was not affected. The facilitated LTD induction requires activation of the NMDA receptor GluN2B (NR2B) subunit as it was completely blocked by a selective GluN2B antagonist. Moreover, Lepr cKO mice are highly sensitive to the antidepressant-like behavioral effects of the GluN2B antagonist but resistant to leptin. These results support important roles for Lepr signaling in glutamatergic neurons in regulating depression-related behaviors and modulating excitatory synaptic strength, suggesting a possible association between synaptic depression and behavioral manifestation of behavioral depression.