Relation between the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid (HPT) Axis and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis during Repeated Stress

Helmreich, Dana L.; Parfitt, David B.; Lu, Xin‐Yun; Akil, Huda; Watson, Stanley J.

doi:10.1159/000087001

Cited by 148 publications

(100 citation statements)

References 69 publications

(61 reference statements)

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“…Thyroid hormones are reduced by hypercortisolism associated with chronic disease [75] as well as restraint stress [76] and food restriction [77,78], effects that may be mediated through a reduction in hypothalamic TRH expression. However, other data indicate this decrease induced by food restriction [47] and stress [48] may occur independent of changes in TRH expression. Because we did not observe differences in T4, the decrease in T3 may be due to a disruption in type 2 deiodinase activity (D2).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 97%

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Polymorphisms in the serotonin reuptake transporter gene modify the consequences of social status on metabolic health in female rhesus monkeys

Jarrell¹,

Hoffman²,

Kaplan³

et al. 2008

Physiology & Behavior

109

159

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Individuals vary substantially in their vulnerability to physical and psychosocial stressors. The causes of such variation in susceptibility to stress are poorly understood, but are thought to relate in part to genetic factors. The present study evaluated the extent to which polymorphisms in the gene encoding the serotonin reuptake transporter (5HTTLPR or SERT) modulated physiologic responses to the imposition of psychosocial stress (social reorganization and subordinate social status) in female rhesus monkeys. Forty females, drawn from the middle ranking genealogies of several large social groups, were reorganized into eight groups containing 5 monkeys each; four groups were comprised entirely of animals homogeneous for the long promoter variant in the SERT gene (l/l), while the other four groups had monkeys with at least one allele of the short promoter variant (l/s or s/s). Females were sequentially introduced into these new groups in random order and dominance ranks were established within several days. During the ensuing 6 weeks, dominant monkeys exhibited elevated rates of aggression while subordinates displayed high rates of submission. Notably, females with the s-variant SERT genotype, collapsed across social status positions, exhibited the highest overall rates of both aggression and submission. Although neither social status nor SERT genotype influenced morning cortisol concentrations, glucocorticoid negative feedback was reduced significantly in subordinate compared to dominant females irrespective of genotype. All animals lost weight and abdominal fat across the experiment. However, decreases were greatest in subordinates, regardless of genotype, and least in dominant females with the l/l genotype. Serum concentrations of insulin, glucose, and ghrelin decreased significantly during the group formation process, effects that were independent of genotype or social status. In contrast, social status and genotype interacted to influence changes in serum concentrations of leptin and triiodothyronine (T3), as dominant, l/l females had the highest levels while subordinate s-variant females had the lowest levels. The order in which a female was introduced to her group generally predicted her eventual social rank. However, rank was additionally predicted by pre-experimental T3 and abdominal fat values, but only in the l/l animals. While these findings must be replicated with a larger sample size, the data suggest that the s-variant SERT genotype confers increased vulnerability to the adverse effects of psychosocial stress associated with subordinate status while the l/l genotype benefits the most from the absence of stress conferred by dominant social status. These findings suggest that genetic factors modify the responses of monkeys to social subordination and perhaps other psychosocial stressors.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 97%

“…Insulin and glucose were measured as indices of energy homeostasis [46]. Finally, the thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), were measured, as these hormones are decreased by reduced food intake [47] and exposure to chronic stressors [48].…”

Section: Outcome Measuresmentioning

confidence: 99%

Polymorphisms in the serotonin reuptake transporter gene modify the consequences of social status on metabolic health in female rhesus monkeys

Jarrell¹,

Hoffman²,

Kaplan³

et al. 2008

Physiology & Behavior

109

159

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

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“…Long-standing stress situations are characterized by increased cortisol secretion under pituitary stymulus, 5 inhibitions of thyrotropin release, low T 3 , and T 4 plasma levels, 6,7 and interference with the regulation of gonadotropin secretion in both sexes. 8 Evidences of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis dysfunction were observed in nearly half of the patients, presenting with increased ACTH plasma levels and normal cortisol plasma concentrations.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Hormonal Disturbances in Visceral Leishmaniasis (Kala-Azar)

Verde¹,

Verde²,

Neto³

et al. 2011

The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene

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“…Exposure to stress suppresses the natural balance of the autonomic nervous system. Extreme levels of stress influences the expression of insulin [61], the function of the brain, the endocrine glands [62] and subsequently the expression of endocrine hormones [63]. For example stress may lead to (i) the onset of dysfunction of the lungs and bronchii, the progressive inability to eliminate CO 2 [64], and reduced expression of glucocorticoids [65], the bronchii are constricted and/or able to perform the task of oxygen exchange which leads to the occurrence of the bronchiectactic spasms that are typical of the asthmatic type condition; (ii) gastric reflux in which digestive acidity 'refluxes' in the oesophagus [66] ; (iii) the release of digestive acidity into the small intestines which leads to the irritation of the intestinal lining and to the rapid elimination of digestive contents i.e.…”

Section: Phenotypementioning

confidence: 99%

The Framework of a Mathematical Model of the Autonomic Nervous System and Physiological Systems: Using the Neuroregulation of Blood Glucose as an Example

Ewing¹

2015

J Comput Sci Syst Biol

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IntroductionOur sense perception enables us to eat the correct amounts of food and, under normal circumstances, we cease eating when we have eaten sufficient food, and we drink sufficient to sati sfy the body 's need for liquid. We breathe at the normal expected rate, our heart pumps at the expected rate and maintain the normal level of blood pressure, our body maintains the normal levels of acidity and temperature, we sleep for 7-8 hours per night, etc. This suggests that the body is being regulated by a biological control mechanism of enormous sophistication and complexity, which has an enormous processing capacity; however as we age, and particularly as we age beyond 50 years, the mechanism which maintains our function become increasingly less able to sustain the levels of oxygen, blood glucose, blood cell content and a myriad of other biological components which the brain requires to function [1]. The i nnate g enetic c apacity o f key o rgans d eclines a nd r esults in shortages of proteins, hormones, etc. This h as a k nock-on e ffect affecting one biological sequence after another.The cumulative effect of our lifetime of experiences, due to environmental and biological factors, influences the function and/ or stability of the autonomic nervous system and ultimately the function of our DNA and genes [2]. The level of genetic expression of the proteins (genotype) which we require to sustain our function declines and the rate at which these expressed proteins subsequently react (phenotype) also declines i.e. the ability of the body to cope with extreme events declines.There are two fundamentally significant biological issues at play: (i) the genetic ability to express proteins (ii) the body's physiological demand i.e. the phenotype or influence of the environment. In the case of diabetes, in particular type 2 diabetes, this is the regulation of Blood Glucose. The greater the level of hyperglycaemia the greater is the associated demand for insulin. The development of a medical condition occurs when the environmental demand exceeds the body's innate capacity [3] i.e. the prevailing supply and/or level of insulin is insufficient to metabolise the excess of blood glucose. By contrast, the lower the level of hypoglycaemia, which occurs in type 1 diabetes, the lower is the demand/need for insulin. If there is insufficient blood glucose the excess of highly reactive insulin will seek an alternative substrate and ultimately results in damage to the peripheral blood vessels e.g. in particular to the brain, eyes, legs and feet.The evidence suggests that this regulatory process is performed by the brain via the process of neuroregulation [4][5][6]. This is a best-fit process which takes into account the prevailing state of development or physiological damage to a part of the brain, degeneration or damage to an organ (or limb), and the prevailing inter-cellular environment i.e. the feedback of biochemical signals from the viscera. AbstractDespite the immense advances of medical research there remains a fundamental theo...

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Relation between the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid (HPT) Axis and the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis during Repeated Stress

Cited by 148 publications

References 69 publications

Polymorphisms in the serotonin reuptake transporter gene modify the consequences of social status on metabolic health in female rhesus monkeys

Polymorphisms in the serotonin reuptake transporter gene modify the consequences of social status on metabolic health in female rhesus monkeys

Hormonal Disturbances in Visceral Leishmaniasis (Kala-Azar)

The Framework of a Mathematical Model of the Autonomic Nervous System and Physiological Systems: Using the Neuroregulation of Blood Glucose as an Example

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