Endothelial dysfunction is a key triggering event in atherosclerosis. Following the entry of lipoproteins into the vessel wall, their rapid modification results in the generation of advanced glycation endproduct epitopes and subsequent infiltration of inflammatory cells. These inflammatory cells release receptor for advanced glycation endproduct (RAGE) ligands, specifically S100/calgranulins and high-mobility group box 1, which sustain vascular injury. Here, we demonstrate critical roles for RAGE and its ligands in vascular inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and atherosclerotic plaque development in a mouse model of atherosclerosis, apoE -/-mice. Experiments in primary aortic endothelial cells isolated from mice and in cultured human aortic endothelial cells revealed the central role of JNK signaling in transducing the impact of RAGE ligands on inflammation. These data highlight unifying mechanisms whereby endothelial RAGE and its ligands mediate vascular and inflammatory stresses that culminate in atherosclerosis in the vulnerable vessel wall.

Diabetes exacerbates cardiovascular disease, at least in part through suppression of macrophage cholesterol efflux and levels of the cholesterol transporters ATP binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) and ABCG1. The receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) is highly expressed in human and murine diabetic atherosclerotic plaques, particularly in macrophages. We tested the hypothesis that RAGE suppresses macrophage cholesterol efflux and probed the mechanisms by which RAGE downregulates ABCA1 and ABCG1. Macrophage cholesterol efflux to apolipoprotein A1 and HDL and reverse cholesterol transport to plasma, liver, and feces were reduced in diabetic macrophages through RAGE. In vitro, RAGE ligands suppressed ABCG1 and ABCA1 promoter luciferase activity and transcription of ABCG1 and ABCA1 through peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor-γ (PPARG)–responsive promoter elements but not through liver X receptor elements. Plasma levels of HDL were reduced in diabetic mice in a RAGE-dependent manner. Laser capture microdissected CD68+ macrophages from atherosclerotic plaques of Ldlr−/− mice devoid of Ager (RAGE) displayed higher levels of Abca1, Abcg1, and Pparg mRNA transcripts versus Ager-expressing Ldlr−/− mice independently of glycemia or plasma levels of total cholesterol and triglycerides. Antagonism of RAGE may fill an important therapeutic gap in the treatment of diabetic macrovascular complications.

Rationale: The multiligand RAGE (receptor for advanced glycation end products) contributes to atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein (Apo)E-null mice. Objective: To delineate the specific mechanisms by which RAGE accelerated atherosclerosis, we performed Affymetrix gene expression arrays on aortas of nondiabetic and diabetic ApoE-null mice expressing RAGE or devoid of RAGE at nine weeks of age, as this reflected a time point at which frank atherosclerotic lesions were not yet present, but that we would be able to identify the genes likely involved in diabetes-and RAGE-dependent atherogenesis. Methods and Results: We report that there is very little overlap of the genes that are differentially expressed both in the onset of diabetes in ApoE-null mice, and in the effect of RAGE deletion in diabetic ApoE-null mice. Pathway-Express analysis revealed that the transforming growth factor-␤ pathway and focal adhesion pathways might be expected to play a significant role in both the mechanism by which diabetes facilitates the formation of atherosclerotic plaques in ApoE-null mice, and the mechanism by which deletion of RAGE ameliorates this effect. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction studies, Western blotting, and confocal microscopy in aortic tissue and in primary cultures of murine aortic smooth muscle cells supported these findings. Conclusions: Taken together, our work suggests that RAGE-dependent acceleration of atherosclerosis in ApoE-null mice is dependent, at least in part, on the action of the ROCK1 (rho-associated protein kinase 1) branch of the transforming growth factor-␤ pathway. (Circ Res. 2010;106:1040-1051.)Key Words: AGE Ⅲ atherosclerosis Ⅲ RAGE T he multiligand RAGE (receptor for advanced glycation end products) contributes to atherosclerosis in ApoE-null mice in both the nondiabetic and diabetic states. Previous studies using soluble RAGE or homozygous RAGE-null mice showed that blockade or deletion of RAGE resulted in reduction in atherosclerotic lesion area and complexity compared to control animals. [1][2][3][4][5][6] In parallel, significant downregulation of inflammatory mediators and matrix metalloproteinases was evident in ApoE-null mice aortas devoid of RAGE compared to those of RAGE-expressing ApoE-null mice.Although these findings suggested that RAGE modulated inflammatory gene expression in ApoE-null mouse aorta, they did not reveal the broader pathways by which RAGE contributed to atherosclerosis. We performed Affymetrix gene expression arrays on aortas of nondiabetic and diabetic ApoE-null mice expressing RAGE or devoid of RAGE.Aortas were harvested in the very early stages of atherogenesis, as our goal was not to identify differential genes and products expression in the atherosclerotic lesion, but to identify RAGE-dependent regulatory mechanisms in the aorta before the development of frank plaques. MethodsAn expanded Methods section is available in the Online Data Supplement at http://circres.ahajournals.org. Animal StudiesMale ApoE-null mice in the C57BL/6 background were purchased from J...

Receptor for advanced glycation end product (RAGE)-dependent signaling has been implicated in ischemia/reperfusion injury in the heart, lung, liver, and brain. Because macrophages contribute to vascular perturbation and tissue injury in hypoxic settings, we tested the hypothesis that RAGE regulates early growth response-1 (Egr-1) expression in hypoxia-exposed macrophages. Molecular analysis, including silencing of RAGE, or blockade of RAGE with sRAGE (the extracellular ligandbinding domain of RAGE), anti-RAGE IgG, or anti-AGE IgG in THP-1 cells, and genetic deletion of RAGE in peritoneal macrophages, revealed that hypoxia-induced up-regulation of Egr-1 is mediated by RAGE signaling. In addition, the observation of increased cellular release of RAGE ligand AGEs in hypoxic THP-1 cells suggests that recruitment of RAGE in hypoxia is stimulated by rapid production of RAGE ligands in this setting. Finally, we show that mDia-1, previously shown to interact with the RAGE cytoplasmic domain, is essential for hypoxia-stimulated regulation of Egr-1, at least in part through protein kinase C ␤II, ERK1/2, and c-Jun NH 2 -terminal kinase signaling triggered by RAGE ligands. Our findings highlight a novel mechanism by which an extracellular signal initiated by RAGE ligand AGEs regulates Egr-1 in a manner requiring mDia-1.The occlusion of blood vessels or insufficient blood flow to diseased tissues occurs with the onset and progression of many pathological states (1-6). Macrophages accumulate in large numbers in such ischemic/hypoxic areas and respond to oxygen signaling mechanisms involving a number of transcription factors (7-9). One such transcription factor, early growth response-1 (Egr-1), 2 an inducible zinc finger transcription factor, is rapidly up-regulated in macrophages in coordinating inflammatory and procoagulant response to hypoxia (8, 9).The generation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) has been implicated in ischemia/reperfusion injury in the heart (10 -14). AGE-modified proteins are able to activate macrophages and stimulate secretion of cytokines and inflammatory factors (15-17). A major mechanism by which AGEs exert their cellular effects is by ligation of the multiligand receptor for AGE (RAGE) (18). In addition, our previous findings demonstrated that AGE-RAGE-dependent membrane translocation of protein kinase C (PKC) ␤II and consequent activation of JNK signaling in the heart and in endothelial cells subjected to hypoxia directly impact on regulation of Egr-1 (19). However, ligands of RAGE are not simply tethered to this receptor.Studies in vivo and in vitro revealed that cytoplamic domain of RAGE is essential for RAGE ligand-triggered signal transduction because deletion of the cytoplasmic domain of RAGE blocks ligands from inducing signaling and modulating gene expression (20). In addition, the cytoplasmic domain of RAGE interacts with a member of the formin homology domain proteins, diaphanous or mDia-1, which has been identified as a binding partner of the RAGE cytoplasmic domain (21). Previous...

Objective There are several pathways that mediate the aberrant metabolism of glucose and that might induce greater vascular damage in the setting of diabetes. The polyol pathway mediated by aldose reductase (AR) has been postulated to be one such pathway. However, it has been reported that AR reduces toxic lipid aldehydes and, under some circumstances, might be anti-atherogenic. Methods and Results Atherosclerosis development was quantified in two lines of transgenic mice expressing human AR (hAR) crossed on the apoE knockout (apoE−/−) background. The transgenes were used to increase the normally low levels of this enzyme in wild type mice. Both generalized hAR overexpression and hAR expression via the Tie 2 promoter increased lesion size in streptozotocin (STZ) diabetic mice. In addition, pharmacologic inhibition of AR reduced lesion size. Conclusion Although in some settings AR expression might reduce levels of toxic aldehydes, transgenic expression of this enzyme within the artery wall leads to greater atherosclerosis.

Ischemic stroke refers to the disorder of blood supply of local brain tissue caused by various reasons. It has high morbidity and mortality worldwide. Astrocytes are the most abundant glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS). They are responsible for the homeostasis, nutrition, and protection of the CNS and play an essential role in many nervous system diseases’ physiological and pathological processes. After stroke injury, astrocytes are activated and play a protective role through the heterogeneous and gradual changes of their gene expression, morphology, proliferation, and function, that is, reactive astrocytes. However, the position of reactive astrocytes has always been a controversial topic. Many studies have shown that reactive astrocytes are a double-edged sword with both beneficial and harmful effects. It is worth noting that their different spatial and temporal expression determines astrocytes’ various functions. Here, we comprehensively review the different roles and mechanisms of astrocytes after ischemic stroke. In addition, the intracellular mechanism of astrocyte activation has also been involved. More importantly, due to the complex cascade reaction and action mechanism after ischemic stroke, the role of astrocytes is still difficult to define. Still, there is no doubt that astrocytes are one of the critical factors mediating the deterioration or improvement of ischemic stroke.

Yang, R, Shen, X, Wang, Y, Voisin, S, Cai, G, Fu, Y, Xu, W, Eynon, N, Bishop, DJ, and Yan, X. ACTN3 R577X gene variant is associated with muscle-related phenotypes in elite Chinese sprint/power athletes. J Strength Cond Res 31(4): 1107-1115, 2017-The ACTN3 R577X polymorphism (rs1815739) has been shown to influence athletic performance. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of this polymorphism in elite Chinese track and field athletes, and to explore its effects on athletes' level of competition and lower-extremity power. We compared the ACTN3 R577X genotypes and allele frequencies in 59 elite sprint/power athletes, 44 elite endurance athletes, and 50 healthy controls from Chinese Han origin. We then subcategorized the athletes into international level and national level and investigated the effects of ACTN3 genotype on lower-extremity power. Genotype distribution of the sprint/power athletes was significantly different from endurance athletes (p = 0.001) and controls (p < 0.001). The frequency of the RR genotype was significantly higher in international-level than that in the national-level sprint/power athletes (p = 0.004), with no international-level sprint/power athletes with XX genotype. The best standing long jump and standing vertical jump results of sprint/power athletes were better in the RR than those in the RX + XX genotypes (p = 0.004 and p = 0.001, respectively). In conclusion, the ACTN3 R577X polymorphism influences the level of competition and lower-extremity power of elite Chinese sprint/power athletes. Including relevant phenotypes such as muscle performance in future studies is important to further understand the effects of gene variants on elite athletic performance.

Objective Diabetic subjects are at high risk for developing atherosclerosis through a variety of mechanisms. As the metabolism of glucose results in production of activators of protein kinase C (PKC)β, it was logical to investigate the role of PKCβ in modulation of atherosclerosis in diabetes. Approach and Results ApoE−/− and PKCβ −/−/ApoE−/− mice were rendered diabetic with streptozotocin. Quantification of atherosclerosis, gene expression profiling or analysis of signaling molecules was performed on aortic sinus or aortas from diabetic mice. Diabetes-accelerated atherosclerosis increased the level of phosphorylated ERK1/2 and JNK mitogen activated protein (MAP) kinases and augmented vascular expression of inflammatory mediators, as well as increased monocyte/macrophage infiltration and CD11c+ cells accumulation in diabetic ApoE−/− mice; processes which were diminished in diabetic PKCβ −/−/ApoE−/− mice. In addition, pharmacological inhibition of PKCβ reduced atherosclerotic lesion size in diabetic ApoE−/− mice. In vitro, the inhibitors of PKCβ and ERK1/2, as well as small interfering RNA (siRNA) to Egr-1 significantly decreased high glucose-induced expression of CD11c (Itgax), chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2) and interleukin (IL)-1β in U937 macrophages. Conclusions These data link enhanced activation of PKCβ to accelerated diabetic atherosclerosis via a mechanism that includes modulation of gene transcription and signal transduction in the vascular wall; processes that contribute to acceleration of vascular inflammation and atherosclerosis in diabetes. Our results uncover a novel role for PKCβ in modulating CD11c expression and inflammatory response of macrophages in the development of diabetic atherosclerosis. These findings support PKCβ activation as a potential therapeutic target for prevention and treatment of diabetic atherosclerosis.