This article reports on the development of two measures relating to historical trauma among American Indian people: The Historical Loss Scale and The Historical Loss Associated Symptoms Scale. Measurement characteristics including frequencies, internal reliability, and confirmatory factor analyses were calculated based on 143 American Indian adult parents of children aged 10 through 12 years who are part of an ongoing longitudinal study of American Indian families in the upper Midwest. Results indicate both scales have high internal reliability. Frequencies indicate that the current generation of American Indian adults have frequent thoughts pertaining to historical losses and that they associate these losses with negative feelings. Two factors of the Historical Loss Associated Symptoms Scale indicate one anxiety/depression component and one anger/avoidance component. The results are discussed in terms of future research and theory pertaining to historical trauma among American Indian people.

No abstract

No abstract

No abstract

Since early 2006, porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) has been reemerging in immunized swine herds. Open reading frame 3 (ORF3) is the only accessory gene in the PEDV genome. The entire ORF3 genes of 12 PEDV field strains and one vaccine strain were sequenced. The ORF3 genes of Chinese PEDV field strains (excluding CH/GSJIII/07) contain a single 672- or 675-nucleotide (nt) ORF, which encodes a 223- or 224-aa-long peptide. However, the CV777 vaccine strain and CH/GSJIII/07 contain a 276-nt ORF because of a 49-nt deletion at nt 245-293. The Chinese PEDV field strains and PEDV reference strains are divided into three groups based on the phylogenetic relationship of their ORF3 genes. Chinese PEDV field strains (excluding CH/GSJIII/07) have a close phylogenetic relationship to Korean strains and are genetically different from the PEDV vaccine strains. However, CH/GSJIII/07 has a close phylogenetic relationship to two vaccine strains, suggesting that it might have evolved from a live vaccine strain. Chinese PEDV field strains (excluding CH/GSJIII/07) can be differentiated from PEDV vaccine strains by a nested RT-PCR method.

Research on homeless and runaway adolescents has shown that this population is at high risk for illicit drug use. Though sexual abuse has been widely considered in the etiology of illicit drug use, we know less about how early sexual abuse affects young people's decisions to run away, to use drugs, and to engage in other deviant behavior on the streets. Based on interviews with 361 female homeless and runaway adolescents in four midwestern states, the current study revealed a high prevalence of drug use, especially use of cocaine among youths with sexual abuse histories. Path analyses showed that early sexual abuse indirectly affected drug use on the streets via running away at an earlier age, spending more time on the street, and use of deviant strategies to survive (e.g., affiliation with deviant peers, trading sex, and use of nonsexual deviant subsistence strategies).Research on homeless and runaway adolescents has shown that this population is at high risk for illicit drug use (such as marijuana, speed, LSD, cocaine, inhalants, and mushrooms), and other deviant behavior (Greenblatt & Robertson, 1993;Hagan & McCarthy, 1997; Kipke, Montgomery, & Mackenzie, 1993; Koopman, Rosario, & Rotheram-Borus, 1994; Whitbeck & Hoyt, 1999). Compared with the general adolescent population, rates 1 Xiaojin Chen, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in sociology at Tulane University in New Orleans, Louisiana. His current research interests include sociological methodology and deviance among homeless and runaway adolescents. Kimberly A. Tyler, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in sociology at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Her research interests include sexual risk taking behaviors, sexual abuse, and sexual victimization among homeless and runaway adolescents. Les B. Whitbeck is professor of sociology at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. His research focus is adolescent risk and resilience. He is conducting a longitudinal study of homelessness and runaway adolescents. Dan R. Hoyt is a professor of sociology and head of the Bureau of Social Research at the University of NebraskaLincoln. His current research focuses on risk, deviance, and mental health among high risk populations. 34 (2004) of drug use among homeless and runaway adolescents have been found to be substantially higher (Windle, 1989; Yates, Mackenzie, Pennbridge, & Cohen, 1988). For example, Stiffman, Earls, Powell, and Robins (1987) reported the rate of drug use among homeless groups to be five times higher than their home-based peers (Stiffman et al.) High rates of early childhood sexual abuse have also been found among homeless and runaway adolescents (McCormack, Janus, & Burgess, 1986; Silbert & Pines, 1981; Tyler, Hoyt, Whitbeck, & Cauce, 2001). Sexual abuse has been widely considered in the etiology of illicit drug use among both the general population and among homeless and runaway adolescents (Finkelhor, Hotaling, Lewis, & Smith, 1990; Rotheram-Borus et al., 1992;Widom & Ames, 1994). Compared with other coping strategies, self-medication ...

No abstract

Polyethylene glycol (PEG) modified cationic niosomes were used to improve the stability and cellular delivery of oligonucleotides (OND). PEGylated cationic niosomes, composed of DC-Chol, PEG2000-DSPE and the non-ionic surfactant-Span, offer some advantages as gene carriers. Complexes of PEGylated cationic niosomes and OND showed a neutral zeta potential with particle size about 300 nm. PEG-modification significantly decreased the binding of serum protein and prevented particle aggregation in serum. The loaded nuclear acid drug exhibited increased resistance to serum nuclease. Compared with cationic niosomes, the PEGylated niosomes showed a higher efficiency of OND cellular uptake in serum. Therefore, in terms of their stable physiochemical properties in storage and physiological environment, as well as low-cost and widely available materials, PEGylated cationic niosomes are promising drug delivery systems for improved OND potency in vivo.