Background-Oral immunotherapy (OIT) has been thought to induce clinical desensitization to allergenic foods, but trials coupling the clinical response and immunologic effects of peanut OIT have not been reported.

Much is known about how T cell receptor (TCR) engagement leads to T cell activation; however, the mechanisms terminating TCR signaling remain less clear. Diacylglycerol, generated after TCR ligation, is essential in T cells. Its function must be controlled tightly to maintain normal T cell homeostasis. Previous studies have shown that diacylglycerol kinase zeta (DGKzeta), which converts diacylglycerol to phosphatidic acid, can inhibit TCR signaling. Here we show that DGKzeta-deficient T cells are hyperresponsive to TCR stimulation both ex vivo and in vivo. Furthermore, DGKzeta-deficient mice mounted a more robust immune response to lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection than did wild-type mice. These results demonstrate the importance of DGKzeta as a physiological negative regulator of TCR signaling and T cell activation.

Summary The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a key regulator of cell growth and metabolism. It associates with multiple proteins and forms two distinct signaling complexes, mTORC1 and mTORC2. Accumulating evidence has revealed critical roles for intact mTOR signaling during T cell activation and responses to microbial infection. However, the importance of mTOR regulation in T cells has yet to be explored. The TSC1/TSC2 complex has been shown to inhibit mTORC1 signaling in cell line models. We show here that deletion of TSC1 in the murine T cell lineage resulted in a dramatic reduction of the peripheral T cell pool, correlating with increased cell death. While mTORC1 is constitutively activated, mTORC2 signaling, reflected by Akt phosphorylation and activity, is decreased in TSC1-deficient T cells. Furthermore, TSC1-deficient T cells contain elevated reactive oxygen species and exhibit decreased mitochondrial content and membrane potential, which is correlated with the activation of the intrinsic death pathway. Together, our results demonstrate that TSC1 differentially regulates mTORC1 and mTORC2 activity, promotes T cell survival, and is critical for normal mitochondrial homeostasis in T cells.

Background: Diacylglycerol kinases (DGKs) synthesize phosphatidic acid (PA), and PA can activate growth-regulatory mTOR signaling. Results:The isoform of DGK is necessary for a mechanically induced increase in PA-mTOR signaling, and overexpression of DGK induces skeletal muscle hypertrophy. Conclusion: PA synthesized by DGK regulates the mechanical activation of mTOR signaling and hypertrophy. Significance: DGK is a potential target for treating muscle atrophy/wasting.

The engagement of TCR induces T-cell activation, which initiates multiple characteristic changes such as increase in cell size, cell division, and the production of cytokines and other effector molecules. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) regulates protein synthesis, transcription, cell survival, and autophagy. Critical roles of mTOR in T-cell activation and effector/memory differentiation have been revealed using chemical inhibitors or by genetic ablation of mTOR in T cells. However, the connection between mTOR signaling and other signaling cascades downstream of TCR is unclear. We demonstrate that diacylglycerol (DAG) and TCR engagement activate signaling in both mTOR complexes 1 and 2 through the activation of the Ras-mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (Mek1/2)-extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (Erk1/2)-activator protein 1 (AP-1), known collectively as the Ras-Mek1/2-Erk1/2-AP-1 pathway. Deficiency of RasGRP1 or inhibition of Mek1/2 activity drastically decreases TCR-induced mTOR activation, whereas constitutively active Ras or Mek1 promotes mTOR activation. Although constitutively active Akt promotes TCR-induced mTOR activation, such activation is attenuated by Mek1/2 inhibition. We demonstrated further that DAG kinases (DGKs) α and ζ, which terminate DAG-mediated signaling, synergistically inhibit TCR-induced mTOR activation by inhibiting the Ras-Mek1/2-Erk/12 pathway. These observations provide novel insights into the regulation of mTOR activation.

T follicular helper (Tfh) cells play critical roles for germinal center responses and effective humoral immunity. We report here that mTOR in CD4 T cells is essential for Tfh differentiation. In Mtorf/f-Cd4Cre mice, both constitutive and inducible Tfh differentiation is severely impaired, leading to defective germinal center B cell formation and antibody production. Moreover, both mTORC1 and mTORC2 contribute to Tfh and GC B cell development but may do so via distinct mechanisms. mTORC1 mainly promotes CD4 T cell proliferation to reach the cell divisions necessary for Tfh differentiation, while Rictor/mTORC2 regulates Tfh differentiation by promoting Akt activation and TCF1 expression without grossly influencing T cell proliferation. Together, our results reveal crucial but distinct roles for mTORC1 and mTORC2 in CD4 T cells during Tfh differentiation and germinal center responses.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.17936.001

Signaling to the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) regulates diverse cellular processes, including protein translation, cellular proliferation, metabolism, and autophagy. These effects are mediated in part by the mTOR targets S6 kinase (S6K) and eukaryotic initiation factor 4E (eIF4E)-binding protein 1 (4E-BP1). Most models place Akt upstream of the best-studied mTOR complex, mTORC1; however, studies have called into question whether Akt is necessary for this pathway, at least in T cells. We found that the adaptor protein Carma1 [caspase recruitment domain (CARD)-containing membrane-associated protein 1 (Carma1)] and at least one of its associated proteins, the paracaspase MALT1 (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma translocation protein 1), were required for optimal activation of mTOR in T cells in response to stimulation of the T cell receptor (TCR) and the coreceptor CD28. However, another common binding partner of Carma1 and MALT1, Bcl10, was not required for TCR-dependent activation of the mTOR pathway. Consistent with these findings, MALT1 activity was required for the proliferation of CD4 + T cells, but not early TCR-dependent activation events. Also consistent with an effect on mTOR, MALT1 activity was required for the increased metabolic flux in activated CD4 + T cells. Together, our data suggest that Carma1 and MALT1 play previously unappreciated roles in the activation of mTOR signaling in T cells after engagement of the TCR.

The mechanisms that control toll-like receptor induced responses including endotoxin tolerance have been not well understood. The tuberous sclerosis complex 1 (TSC1) is a tumor suppressor that inhibits the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). We show here that deficiency of TSC1 results in enhanced activation of not only mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1), but also JNK1/2, following lipopolysaccharide stimulation in macrophages. TSC1 deficient macrophages produce elevated proinflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide in response to multiple TLR ligands. Such enhanced TLR-induced responses can be inhibited by reducing mTORC1 and JNK1/2 activities with chemical inhibitors or small hairpin RNA, suggesting that TSC1 negatively controls TLR responses through both mTORC1 and JNK1/2. The impact of TSC1 deficiency appeared not limited to TLRs, as NOD- and -RIG-I/MDA-5 induced innate responses were also altered in TSC1 deficient macrophages. Furthermore, TSC1 deficiency appears to cause impaired induction of endotoxin tolerance in vitro and in vivo, which is correlated with increased JNK1/2 activation and can be reversed by JNK1/2 inhibition. Our results reveal a critical role of TSC1 in regulating innate immunity by negative control of mTORC1 and JNK1/2 activation.