The variability in phenotypic presentations and the lack of consistency of genetic associations in mental illnesses remain a major challenge in molecular psychiatry. Recently, it has become increasingly clear that altered promoter DNA methylation could play a critical role in mediating differential regulation of genes and in facilitating short-term adaptation in response to the environment. Here, we report the investigation of the differential activity of membrane-bound catechol-O-methyltransferase (MB-COMT) due to altered promoter methylation and the nature of the contribution of COMT Val158Met polymorphism as risk factors for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder by analyzing 115 post-mortem brain samples from the frontal lobe. These studies are the first to reveal that the MB-COMT promoter DNA is frequently hypomethylated in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder patients, compared with the controls (methylation rate: 26 and 29 versus 60%; P=0.004 and 0.008, respectively), particularly in the left frontal lobes (methylation rate: 29 and 30 versus 81%; P=0.003 and 0.002, respectively). Quantitative gene-expression analyses showed a corresponding increase in transcript levels of MB-COMT in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder patients compared with the controls (P=0.02) with an accompanying inverse correlation between MB-COMT and DRD1 expression. Furthermore, there was a tendency for the enrichment of the Val allele of the COMT Val158Met polymorphism with MB-COMT hypomethylation in the patients. These findings suggest that MB-COMT over-expression due to promoter hypomethylation and/or hyperactive allele of COMT may increase dopamine degradation in the frontal lobe providing a molecular basis for the shared symptoms of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

Breast cancer progression is associated with aberrant DNA methylation and expression of genes that control the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a critical step in malignant conversion. Although the genes affected have been studied, there is little understanding of how aberrant activation of the DNA methylation machinery itself occurs. Using a breast cancer cell-based model system, we found that cells that underwent EMT exhibited overactive transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) signaling and loss of expression of the CDH1, CGN, CLDN4, and KLK10 genes as a result of hypermethylation of their corresponding promoter regions. Based on these observations, we hypothesized that activated TGFβ-Smad signaling provides an "epigenetic memory" to maintain silencing of critical genes. In support of this hypothesis, disrupting Smad signaling in mesenchymal breast cancer cells resulted in DNA demethylation and reexpression of the genes identified. This epigenetic reversal was accompanied by an acquisition of epithelial morphology and a suppression of invasive properties. Notably, disrupting TGFβ signaling decreased the DNA binding activity of DNA methyltransferase DNMT1, suggesting that failure to maintain methylation of newly synthesized DNA was the likely cause of DNA demethylation. Together, our findings reveal a hyperactive TGFβ-TGFβR-Smad2 signaling axis needed to maintain epigenetic silencing of critical EMT genes and breast cancer progression. Cancer Res; 70(3); 968-78. ©2010 AACR.

The mechanisms that control toll-like receptor induced responses including endotoxin tolerance have been not well understood. The tuberous sclerosis complex 1 (TSC1) is a tumor suppressor that inhibits the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). We show here that deficiency of TSC1 results in enhanced activation of not only mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1), but also JNK1/2, following lipopolysaccharide stimulation in macrophages. TSC1 deficient macrophages produce elevated proinflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide in response to multiple TLR ligands. Such enhanced TLR-induced responses can be inhibited by reducing mTORC1 and JNK1/2 activities with chemical inhibitors or small hairpin RNA, suggesting that TSC1 negatively controls TLR responses through both mTORC1 and JNK1/2. The impact of TSC1 deficiency appeared not limited to TLRs, as NOD- and -RIG-I/MDA-5 induced innate responses were also altered in TSC1 deficient macrophages. Furthermore, TSC1 deficiency appears to cause impaired induction of endotoxin tolerance in vitro and in vivo, which is correlated with increased JNK1/2 activation and can be reversed by JNK1/2 inhibition. Our results reveal a critical role of TSC1 in regulating innate immunity by negative control of mTORC1 and JNK1/2 activation.

Promoter DNA methylation status of six genes in samples derived from 27 bronchial epithelial cells and matching blood samples from 22 former/current smokers and five nonsmokers as well as 49 primary non^small cell lung cancer samples with corresponding blood controls was determined using methylation-specific PCR (MSP). Lung tumor tissues showed a significantly higher frequency of promoter DNA methylation in p16, MGMT, and DAPK (P < 0.05; Fisher's exact test). p16 promoter DNA methylation in tumors was observed at consistently higher levels when compared with all the other samples analyzed (P = 0.001; Fisher's exact test). ECAD and DAPK exhibited statistically insignificant differences in their levels of DNA methylation among the tumors and bronchial epithelial cells from the smokers. Interestingly, similar levels of methylation were observed in bronchial epithelial cells and corresponding blood from smokers for all four genes (ECAD, p16, MGMT, and DAPK) that showed smoking/lung cancer^associated methylation changes. In summary, our data suggest that targeted DNA methylation silencing of ECAD and DAPK occurs in the early stages and that of p16 and MGMT in the later stages of lung cancer progression. We also provide preliminary evidence that peripheral lymphocytes could potentially be used as a surrogate for bronchial epithelial cells to detect altered DNA methylation in smokers.Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths in the United States, accounting for 28% of all cancer deaths and f157,200 deaths every year (1). Unfortunately, 36% of nonsmall cell lung cancer cases are detected at an advanced stage often after micrometastasis has developed, leading to an alarmingly low 5-year survival rate of only 14.9% (1). Because nearly 87% of lung cancer cases are due to smoking, yet only 10% of smokers develop lung cancer, it may be worthwhile to screen for susceptible individuals to administer effective preventive measures (1, 2). Thus, the establishment of a combination of early diagnostic markers that could be analyzed in clinical samples obtained using relatively noninvasive procedures could become an asset to efficient detection of changes in preneoplastic tissue before tumor formation and metastasis can occur.Differential DNA methylation at CpG islands has been associated with regulation of gene expression and is essential for normal development, X-chromosome inactivation, imprinting, suppression of parasitic DNA sequences, and cancer (3 -5). Aberrant differential methylation of CpG islands in the promoter region of genes that are implicated in different roles including carcinogen activation or detoxification (CYP1A1 and GSTP1), tumor suppression (p14, p15, p16, p73, APC, and BRCA1), DNA repair (hMLH1 and MGMT), and metastasis and invasion (CDH1, ECAD, TIMP1, and DAPK) occurs in several cancers, including lung cancer (3 -10). Thus, the DNA methylation status of critical genes is not only ideal for use as diagnostic markers but also as therapeutic targets for lung cancer. In this study, we chose to a...

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a group of endogenous, small (about 22 nucleotides) non-coding RNAs which negatively regulate gene expressions. As one of them, miR-204 originates from the sixth intron of the transient receptor potential melastatin 3 (TRPM3) gene. Therefore, expression of miR-204 is under the control of the TRPM3 promoter and regulated by genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. miR-204 has been found to play the important roles in development of eyes and adipogenesis. Its pathological functions have been observed in a few diseases including pulmonary arterial hypertension, diabetes, and various types of cancers. It is believed that miR-204 acts as a tumor-suppressor via promoting apoptosis, conferring the resistance of cancer cells to chemotherapy, and suppressing the self-renewal of cancer stem cells (CSCs) and the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). Expression of miR-204 is repressed by its targets XRN1 and TRKB in prostate cancer and endometrial carcinoma, respectively; therefore, they establish an oncogenic feedback loops that play an important role promoting development of cancer. In this review, we summarize our current knowledge regarding miR-204, including its expression, regulation and biological functions, especially focusing our discussion on its role in tumor development and tumor progression.

Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) are a powerful new approach for targeted gene disruption in various animal models, but little is known about their activities in Mus musculus, the widely used mammalian model organism. Here, we report that direct injection of in vitro transcribed messenger RNA of TALEN pairs into mouse zygotes induced somatic mutations, which were stably passed to the next generation through germ-line transmission. With one TALEN pair constructed for each of 10 target genes, mutant F0 mice for each gene were obtained with the mutation rate ranged from 13 to 67% and an average of ∼40% of total healthy newborns with no significant differences between C57BL/6 and FVB/N genetic background. One TALEN pair with single mismatch to their intended target sequence in each side failed to yield any mutation. Furthermore, highly efficient germ-line transmission was obtained, as all the F0 founders tested transmitted the mutations to F1 mice. In addition, we also observed that one bi-allele mutant founder of Lepr gene, encoding Leptin receptor, had similar diabetic phenotype as db/db mouse. Together, our results suggest that TALENs are an effective genetic tool for rapid gene disruption with high efficiency and heritability in mouse with distinct genetic background.

Small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO1, 2, 3) is a group of proteins that conjugate to lysine residues of target proteins thereby modifying their activity, stability, and subcellular localization. A large number of SUMO target proteins are transcription factors and other nuclear proteins involved in gene expression. Furthermore, SUMO conjugation plays key roles in genome stability, quality control of newly synthesized proteins, proteasomal degradation of proteins and DNA damage repair. Any marked increase in levels of SUMO-conjugated proteins is therefore expected to have a major impact on the fate of cells. We show here that SUMO conjugation is activated in human astrocytic brain tumors. Levels of both SUMO1- and SUMO2/3-conjugated proteins were markedly increased in tumor samples. The effect was least pronounced in low-grade astrocytoma (WHO Grade II) and most pronounced in glioblastoma multiforme (WHO Grade IV). We also found a marked rise in levels of Ubc9, the only SUMO conjugation enzyme identified so far. Blocking SUMO1-3 conjugation in glioblastoma cells by silencing their expression blocked DNA synthesis, cell growth and clonogenic survival of cells. It also resulted in DNA-PK-dependent phosphorylation of H2AX, indicative of DNA double-strand damage, and G2/M cell cycle arrest. Collectively, these findings highlight the pivotal role of SUMO conjugation in DNA damage repair processes and imply that the SUMO conjugation pathway could be a new target of therapeutic intervention aimed at increasing the sensitivity of glioblastomas to radio- and chemotherapy.

Dendritic cell (DC) maturation is characterized by upregulation cell surface MHC class II (MHCII) and costimulatory molecules and production of a variety of cytokines that can shape both innate and adaptive immunity. Paradoxically, transcription of the MHCII genes as well as its activator, CIITA, is rapidly silenced during DC maturation. The mechanisms that control CIITA/MHCII expression and silencing have been not fully understood. We report here that the tumor suppressor TSC1 is a critical regulator of DC function for both innate and adaptive immunity. Its deficiency in DCs results in increased mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) but decreased mTORC2 signaling, altered cytokine production, impaired CIITA/MHCII expression, and defective antigen presentation to CD4 T cells following TLR4 stimulation. We demonstrate further that IRF4 can directly bind to CIITA promoters and decreased IRF4 expression is partially responsible for decreased CIITA/MHC-II expression in TSC1 deficient DCs. Moreover, we identify that CIITA/MHCII silencing during DC maturation requires mTORC1 activity. Together, our data reveal unexpected roles of TSC1/mTOR that control multifaceted functions of DCs.