Certain unregulated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are more of a health concern than regulated DBPs. Brominated species are typically more cytotoxic and genotoxic than their chlorinated analogs. The impact of granular activated carbon (GAC) on controlling the formation of regulated and selected unregulated DBPs following chlorine disinfection was evaluated. The predicted cyto- and genotoxicity of DBPs was calculated using published potencies based on the comet assay for Chinese hamster ovary cells (assesses the level of DNA strand breaks). Additionally, genotoxicity was measured using the SOS-Chromotest (detects DNA-damaging agents). The class sum concentrations of trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, and unregulated DBPs, and the SOS genotoxicity followed the breakthrough of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), however the formation of brominated species did not. The bromide/DOC ratio was higher than the influent through much of the breakthrough curve (GAC does not remove bromide), which resulted in elevated brominated DBP concentrations in the effluent. Based on the potency of the haloacetonitriles and halonitromethanes, these nitrogen-containing DBPs were the driving agents of the predicted genotoxicity. GAC treatment of drinking or reclaimed waters with appreciable levels of bromide and dissolved organic nitrogen may not control the formation of unregulated DBPs with higher genotoxicity potencies.

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Materials used during manufacturing of tires can be a source of nitrosamines and/or their precursors. Here, we examined the leaching of nitrosamines and nitrosamine precursors from scrap tires under different test conditions. Tire chips of different sizes and crumb rubber were exposed to leaching solutions with pH values ranging from 4.0 to 10.0. Leachates collected from tires were analyzed for nitrosamines. Leachates were oxidized with chloramine, ozone, or ozone followed by chloramine to quantify the amount of nitrosamine precursors. While N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and N-nitrosomorpholine (NMOR) constituted more than 90% of nitrosamines, Nnitrosodibutylamine and N-nitrosopyrrolidine were also detected in the leachates. Chloramination of the leachate was found to form additional NDMA, NMOR, and other nitrosamines. While ozonation alone did not lead to formation of NDMA or NMOR, lower levels of formation of NDMA and NMOR were observed when ozonation was followed by chloramination as compared to those for only chloramination. This suggests that ozonation reduced the reactivity of nitrosamine precursors leaching from scrap tires. Furthermore, the levels of leaching of NDMA and NMOR precursors were higher under lower-pH conditions, which can be attributed to the higher solubility of protonated amines. From an environmental standpoint, these results suggest that water in contact with tire scraps (such as in urban runoff, bed media for ballast water and wastewater treatment, and ground cover for playgrounds) may potentially contain nitrosamines and nitrosamine precursors, and the amount of precursor leaching may change with the size of the tire scraps.

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