This comprehensive review covers current methods used for biofilm detection in clinical and laboratory settings and noninvasive portable technologies for direct and indirect detection of biofilm growth and monitoring at the point of care.

Raster scanning imaging technologies capture least scattered photons (LSPs) and reject multiple scattered photons (MSPs) in backscattered photons to image the underlying structures of a scattering medium. However, MSPs can still squeeze into the images, resulting in limited imaging depth, degraded contrast, and significantly reduced lateral resolution. Great efforts have been made to understand how MSPs affect imaging performance through modeling, but the techniques for visualizing the backscattered photon profile (BSPP) in scattering media during imaging are unavailable. Here, a method of reconstructing BSPP is demonstrated using beam-offset optical coherence tomography (OCT), in which OCT images are acquired at offset positions from the illumination beam. The separation of LSPs and MSPs based on the BSPP enables quantification of imaging depth, contrast, and lateral resolution, as well as access to the depth-resolved modulated transfer function (MTF). This approach presents great opportunities for better retrieving tissue optical properties, correctly interpreting images, or directly using MTF as the feedback for adaptive optical imaging.

To image the underlying structures of a scattering medium, raster scanning imaging technologies capture least scattered photons (LSPs) and reject multiple scattered photons (MSPs) in backscattered photons. However, MSPs can still squeeze into the images, resulting in limited imaging depth, degraded contrast, and significantly reduced lateral resolution. Great efforts have been made to understand how MSPs affect imaging performance through modeling, but how the backscattered photons are distributed in a scattering medium during imaging remains a conceived picture base on simulations. Here, we demonstrate a method of reconstructing BSPP using beam-offset optical coherence tomography (OCT), where OCT images are acquired at offset positions from the illumination beam. By separating LSPs and MSPs, we can quantify imaging depth, contrast, and lateral resolution and access the depth-resolved modulated transfer function (MTF). This approach presents great opportunities for better retrieving tissue optical properties, correctly interpreting images, or directly using MTF as the feedback for adaptive optical imaging.