In a previous study, natural hydroxyapatite (HAp) from the bones of Brazilian river fish was calcined at 900 °C (4–12 h), and optical characterization using the near infrared photoacoustic spectroscopy technique enabled the establishment of 8 h as the best calcination time for nanostructure stabilization when milled in a high-energy milling device [T. M. Coelho, E. S. Nogueira, W. R. Weinand, W. M. Lima, A. Steimacher, A. N. Medina, M. L. Baesso, and A. C. Bento, J. Appl. Phys. 100, 094312 (2006)]. The fish wastes used were from species such as pintado (Pseudoplatystoma corruscans), jaú (Paulicea lutkeni), and cachara (Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum). In this study, the characterization of the thermal properties of the same natural HAp is discussed for samples milled from 0 to 32 h, with nanostructures from 80 to 24 nm. The powders were pressed into disks at 350 MPa and sintered for 4 h at 1000 °C. Thermophysical parameters were obtained by thermal wave interferometry and nonadiabatic relaxation calorimetry. Results for thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity showed that the parameters increase with milling time, although they present a transition (a plateau) in the interval from 8 to 16 h. Two different slopes were observed and this was interpreted as being due to the size of the crystallites, which fall rapidly, dropping from 80 nm to near 22 nm when milling time is increased from 0 to 16 h, and forming agglomerates up to 32 h.

In this study, the characterization of the optical properties of natural hydroxyapatite (HAp) [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2] is discussed. In the first stage of the experiment, natural HAp was processed from the bones of Brazilian river fish such as pintado (Pseudoplatystoma corruscans), jaú (Paulicea lutkeni), and cachara (Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum). The bones were calcined at 900°C for different amounts of time (4–12h) and reduced to powder using two different milling times (2 and 4h) in a high-energy ball mill, in order to determine the best procedure for obtaining natural nanostructured HAp powder for the study. In the second stage, material calcined for 8h was milled for 2, 4, 8, and 16h. The techniques of photoacoustic spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and flame atomic absorption spectrometry were applied to characterize these samples. The O–H stretching shown by photoacoustic spectroscopy was correlated to the HAp nanostructure. Structural analysis indicated a Ca∕P ratio close to 1.67 (∼1.64±0.04) and the presence of morphology and particle phase structure in the nanostructured HAp powder.

Bioactive ferroelectric composites based on polyvinylidene fluoride, hydroxyapatite and βtricalcium phosphate have been synthesized and their structural, microstructural, bioactive, and ferroelectric properties are characterized. Structural and FTIR investigations showed the presence of the polar polyvinylidene fluoride (β 2) phase, while ferroelectric characterizations revealed remnant polarizations and coercive field, around 0.04C/cm 2 and 28 kV/cm, respectively, for these biocompatible samples. Structural and microstructural analysis of samples previously immersed in simulated body fluid for 7 days revealed a large apatite phase growth (1.45 m) on the composites' surfaces as a strong indication of their elevated bioactivity and potentialities for bone tissue engineering.

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A ceramic/polymer biocomposite with high potential for multifunctional practical applications in bone tissue engineering was synthesized by using a well-known piezoelectric polymer, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), and a high bioactive biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP) ceramic obtained from recycled fish bones. High-bioactivity was observed for the PVDF-BCP composite when it was subjected to conditions that simulate the animal body once a very thick apatite layer (9 μm) was grown on its surface in an immersion experiment (7 days) in simulated body fluid. The structural characteristics of the PVDF-BCP composite showed similarities with highly bioactive young animal bones, overlapped with PVDF polymorphic phases. Mechanical tests revealed properties very similar to those of the human bone tissue with a resistance strength reaching 80 MPa. Together, all these factors indicated a very promising material for application in osseous implants/replacement with postoperative recovery controlled/ accelerated by external stimuli.

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In this work, we investigate the bioactivity and structural properties of nanostructured bulk composites that are composed of Nb2O5 and natural hydroxyapatite (HAp) and are produced by mechanical alloying and powder metallurgy. X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy data showed that the milling process followed by a heat treatment at 1000 °C induced chemical reactions along with the formation of the CaNb2O6, PNb9O25 and Ca3(PO4)2 phases. Rietveld refinement indicated significant changes in each phase weight fraction as a function of HAp concentration. These changes influenced the in vitro bioactivity of the material. XRD and FTIR analyses indicated that the composites exhibited bioactivity characteristics by forming a carbonated apatite layer when the composites were immersed in a simulated body fluid. The formed layers had a maximum thickness of 13 μm, as measured by confocal Raman spectroscopy and as confirmed by scanning electron microscopy. The results of this work suggest that the tested bulk composites are promising biomaterials for use in implants.

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