Precarious manhood beliefs portray manhood, relative to womanhood, as a social status that is hard to earn, easy to lose, and proven via public action. Here, we present cross-cultural data on a brief measure of precarious manhood beliefs (the Precarious Manhood Beliefs scale [PMB]) that covaries meaningfully with other cross-culturally validated gender ideologies and with country-level indices of gender equality and human development. Using data from university samples in 62 countries across 13 world regions ( N = 33,417), we demonstrate: (1) the psychometric isomorphism of the PMB (i.e., its comparability in meaning and statistical properties across the individual and country levels); (2) the PMB’s distinctness from, and associations with, ambivalent sexism and ambivalence toward men; and (3) associations of the PMB with nation-level gender equality and human development. Findings are discussed in terms of their statistical and theoretical implications for understanding widely-held beliefs about the precariousness of the male gender role.
The research presented here reports the process of adapting the Male Role Norms Inventory-Revised (MRNI-R) for use in Russian. The full (MRNI-R) and short form (Male Role Norms Inventory-Short Form; MRNI-SF) versions of the Inventory were tested in two studies. There were 1,016 participants in Study 1 and 1,038 participants in Study 2, which investigated second-order, seven-factor, and bifactor models. The analysis of construct validity indicated that the MRNI-R did not fit the data. Therefore, we developed a Russian-language MRNI-SF which fit the data well. The modified bifactor model of the MRNI-SF, which contained two covariances among the latent factors, demonstrated good construct validity and fit the data better than the unidimensional, seven-factor, second-order, oblique, and pure orthogonal bifactor models. Configural, metric, and scalar measurement invariance were supported for the modified bifactor model. The analysis of the MRNI-SF's convergent validity demonstrated that traditional masculinity ideology (TMI) was related to stereotypes about men, ambivalent attitudes toward them, and negative attitudes toward homosexuals. Taken together, we concluded that the Russian-language MRNI-SF might be used for a reliable assessment of TMI among groups based on gender and sexual orientation. Public Significance StatementThe Male Role Norms Inventory-Short Form (MRNI-SF) is a popular and widely used measure of traditional masculinity ideology (TMI). However, it has mostly been used by researchers and clinicians in North America and has rarely been translated into other languages. The findings presented here provide evidence that the MRNI-SF might be used in the Russian context to measure TMI.
The research presented here reports the process of adapting the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI) for use in Russian. The full-and short-form (CMNI-30) versions of the Inventory were tested in two studies. In total, 681 Russian residents participated in Study 1 and 716 in Study 2, which investigated the unidimensional, 10-factor, second-order, and orthogonal bifactor models. The analysis of construct validity indicated that the full version of CMNI did not fit the data. Therefore, we developed a Russian-language CMNI-30 which fitted the data well. The 10-factor model of the CMNI-30 demonstrated good construct validity and fitted the data better than the unidimensional, second-order, and orthogonal bifactor models. However, the subscale Pursuit of Status demonstrated low reliability and captured a low amount of variance in relation to the amount of variance due to measurement error. Full configural and metric and partial scalar measurement invariance were supported for the 10-factor model among straight and sexual minority men. The analysis of the CMNI-30's convergent validity demonstrated that specific factors of CMNI-30 were related to stereotypes about men, ambivalent attitudes toward them, and traditional masculinity ideology. Taken together, this research provided preliminary evidence for the validity and reliability of the Russianlanguage CMNI-30 among straight and sexual minority men. Public Significance StatementThe Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI) is a popular and widely used measure of one's conformity to masculine norms. However, it has mostly been used by researchers and clinicians in North America. The findings presented here provide evidence that the CMNI-30 might be used in the Russian context to measure conformity to masculine norms.
Traditional masculinity (TM) is conceptualized as a risk factor for the well-being of men and those around them. Further, TM is often considered a key factor in male violence against women, and the positive association between these two factors has been supported by numerous studies. To quantify this relationship, a meta-analysis was conducted on 57 independent samples (mainly from the United States) from 10,772 respondents, reported in 51 articles between 1992 and 2021. We observed that TM positively correlated with male attitudes toward violence and violent behavior against women. The relationship between TM and attitudes toward violence was moderated by a type of TM (traditional masculinity ideology, conformity to masculine norms, experience of gender role conflict), a type of violence (sexual harassment, rape, physical, and psychological violence), but not by type of relationship between the aggressor and the target (intimate and nonintimate partner violence). The strongest correlations were between traditional masculinity ideology and attitudes toward violence and between traditional masculinity and sexual harassment. At the same time, none of the mentioned factors moderated the relationship between TM and violent behavior. The relationship between traditional masculinity and male violence against women was also moderated by the domain of traditional masculinity. The strongest association was between Status/Power over Women and violence against women. Furthermore, the results should be interpreted in light of substantial heterogeneity in the size of the correlations and the presence of publication bias. Public Significance StatementThis study integrates findings from 10,772 respondents across 57 samples regarding the relationship between traditional masculinity and male violence against women. In general, endorsement of traditional masculinity ideology, conformity to masculine norms, and experience of gender role conflict were positively associated with both violent attitudes and behavior. However, we detected a presence of publication bias and considerable heterogeneity; therefore, the precise estimates may be not reliable.
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