No abstract

Pharmacokinetic (PK) studies in mice usually require discrete and parallel blood sampling owing to a restriction on the volume of blood that can be withdrawn. This results in dosing large number of animals and generating composite PK profile. To reduce the number of animals and generate individual animal PK profiles, we developed a serial sampling technique via tail vein bleeding in mice, in which only 20-30 μL blood was withdrawn per time point. Due to the small blood volume, a dried-blood spot (DBS) technique was applied for sample processing. The utility of this technique was demonstrated using three test compounds (amodiaquine, chloroquine and chlorthalidone), with varying degrees of blood-to-plasma partition ratios. The PK studies were carried out in male Balb/c mouse weighing 25-30 g. The compounds were administered intravenously via the saphenous vein. Blood was collected by composite (retro-orbital plexus) or serial (tail vein bleeding) sampling techniques at different time points. Blood samples were processed as blood lysate or DBS. Blood or plasma samples were analyzed by sensitive and rapid UPLC-MS/MS methods. The blood concentrations (both from blood lysate and DBS) obtained from serial sampling matched with those from composite sampling. The ratio of blood AUC to plasma AUC correlated well with the in vitro blood-to-plasma partition ratio of the compounds. The systemic clearance and volume of distribution at steady state calculated from blood or plasma AUCs were in proportion to the respective AUCs. Our results indicated that the serial sampling technique would reduce the number of animals and also compound usage, as well as improve the quality of pharmacokinetic data. Also, the serial sampling technique does not require the use of anesthesia and allows estimation of inter-animal variability in PK. A small volume serial sampling is possible due to the availability of the DBS technique.

1. The effect of age and obesity on the pharmacokinetics (PK), hepatic blood flow (HBF) and liver metabolism of 10 compounds was determined in rats. The animals fed a high-fat diet were defined as the diet-induced obese (DIO) group, while the animals that were aged similar to the DIO rats but not fed with high-fat diet were called the age-matched (AM) group. 2. The clearance (CL) values of high CL compounds (CL > 50 mL/min/kg, namely propranolol, diazepam, phenytoin, ethinylestradiol, lorcaserin and fenfluramine) decreased significantly (1.5- to 6-fold) in DIO and AM rats as compared to lean rats, while there was no clear trend for change in CL for the low-to-moderate CL compounds (CL < 50 mL/min/kg, namely atenolol, chlorzoxazone, vancomycin and sibutramine). Hepatocytes incubations revealed a change in half life (t1/2) only for phenytoin. The body weight normalized liver weights and HBF of AM and DIO rats were found to be 2- to 3-fold lower than in lean rats. 3. Our findings suggest that age, and diet to a lesser extent, can reduce HBF and body normalized liver weights and, hence, also reduce CL values for high CL compounds in rats.

The unbound concentration in plasma drives the transport of the drug into the brain, and the unbound drug concentration in the central nervous system (CNS) drives the interaction with the target eliciting the pharmacological effect. Delivery of the drug to the CNS is a challenge because of the unique neurovascular unit, which restricts the passage of drugs into the brain. The efflux transporters [especially P-glycoprotein (P-gp)] present at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) act as one of the major detractors for keeping drugs outside the CNS. The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) drug concentration has been used as a surrogate for unbound brain concentrations and has proven to be a good indicator to relate to CNS activity. Herein, we have established a serial CSF sampling technique in rats, which allowed CSF sampling from a single animal and reduced the number of animals required, as well as the interanimal variance associated with a composite/terminal study design. Concentrations in the CSF sampled from the cisterna magna serially from the same rat were compared with the concentrations obtained from discrete CSF sampling and with brain concentrations. The serial CSF sampling technique was also authenticated by ensuring no change in the barrier without any indication of damage caused by the repeated puncture of cisterna magna. This technique was corroborated using three passively permeable compounds (carbamazepine, theophylline, and propranolol), three P-gp substrates (quinidine, verapamil, and digoxin), and one l-amino acid uptake transporter substrate (gabapentin). The P-gp substrates were also used in separate studies with the P-gp inhibitor elacridar to assess the effect on CSF concentration versus brain concentration on P-gp inhibition. The CSF concentration and unbound brain concentration were comparable (within 3-fold) for all compounds, including P-gp substrates even in the presence of elacridar. Therefore, this technique can prove to be beneficial for predicting the unbound drug concentrations in the brain from the CSF concentrations and reduce the cost incurred in preclinical animal models. Chemical inhibition by elacridar and prediction of the brain unbound concentrations from the serial CSF sampling of P-gp substrates in the rat may be an attractive alternative to the use of genetically knocked out rodents.

The role of uptake transporter (organic anion–transporting polypeptide [Oatp]) in the disposition of a P-glycoprotein (P-gp) substrate (digoxin) at the barriers of central nervous system, namely, the blood-brain barrier (BBB), blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB), and brain-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB), was studied using rat as a preclinical species. In vivo chemical inhibition of P-gp and Oatp was achieved using elacridar and rifampicin, respectively. Our findings show that (1) digoxin had a low brain-to-plasma concentration ratio (B/P) (0.07) in rat; (2) in the presence of elacridar, the B/P of digoxin increased by about 12-fold; (3) rifampicin administration alone did not change the digoxin B/P significantly when compared with digoxin B/P alone; (4) rifampicin administration along with elacridar resulted only in 6-fold increase in the B/P of digoxin; (5) similar fold changes and trends were seen with the spinal cord-to-plasma concentration ratio of digoxin, indicating the similarity between BBB and the BSCB; and (6) unlike BBB and BSCB, the presence of rifampicin further increased the cerebrospinal fluid-to-plasma concentration ratio (CSF/P) for digoxin, suggesting a differential orientation of the uptake transporters at the BCSFB (CSF to blood) compared with the BBB (blood to brain). The observations for digoxin uptake, at least at the BBB and the BSCB, advocate the importance of uptake transporters (Oatps). However, the activity of such uptake transporters became evident only after inhibition of the efflux transporter (P-gp).

Previously we reported that coproporphyrin-I (CP-I) is an optimal probe substrate for multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2), and stimulation of MRP2-mediated transport is probe substrate-dependent. In the present investigation, we assessed if the in vitro stimulation is physiologically relevant. Similar to human MRP2 transport, CP-I was transported by rat Mrp2 in a typical Michaelis-Menten kinetics with apparent Km and Vmax values of 15 ± 6 µM and 161 ± 20 pmol/min/mg protein, respectively. In vivo Mrp2 functions were monitored by biliary and renal secretion of CP-I and its isomer CP-III, in bile-duct cannulated rats before and after treatment with mitoxantrone, progesterone, and verapamil. These compounds stimulated Mrp2-mediated CP-I transport in vitro. No significant increase in biliary or renal clearances, as well as in the cumulative amount of CP-I or CP-III eliminated in bile, were detected following treatment with the in vitro stimulators, indicating an in vitro to in vivo disconnect. In presence of 10 µM bilirubin, the in vitro stimulation was suppressed. We concluded that the in vitro stimulation of CP-I transport mediated by Mrp2 is not translatable in vivo, and proposed that the presence of endogenous compounds such as bilirubin in the liver may contribute to the in vitro to in vivo disconnect.

Blank DBS samples can be opportunistically prepared from overweight or satellite animals, be stored, and subsequently spiked with standards to prepare calibration standards.

The developed method was investigated for target and off-target distribution of pioglitazone and could be applied to validate the site-specific delivery systems.