Backgound: Stress system consists of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the locus caeruleus/norepinephrine-autonomic nervous system (ANS). Traditionally, HPA axis activity is evaluated by measuring its end-product cortisol while the activity of ANS is assessed using heart rate variability (HRV) indices. Alterations in cortisol levels and HRV measures during laboratory-based stress tasks were extensively studied in previous research. However, scarce data exist on the associations of HRV measures with the levels of other adrenal steroid hormones under baseline conditions. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the activity of HPA axis by measuring salivary cortisol, cortisone, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) levels and their ratios and to examine its association with HRV measures in a sample of healthy young and middle-aged adults. Methods: For each participant (n=40), three data collection sessions taking place at the same time of the day were scheduled within five working days. Participants completed a self-reported questionnaire on sociodemographic and lifestyle characteristics, filled out Perceived Stress Scale and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Also, saliva samples were collected and physiological measures including resting HR and HRV were recorded during three data collection sessions. Results: Statistically significant associations between diminished parasympathetic vagal tone evaluated by time-domain HRV measures and higher salivary cortisol, lower DHEA levels, as well as increased DHEA to cortisol ratio were found. Also, physiological stress indicators (i.e. HRV) showed greater intrindividual stability compared with biochemical biomarkers (i. e. salivary steroid hormones) within the period of five days. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that both cortisol and DHEA mediate the link between two stress-sensitive homeostatic systems.

Various relaxation techniques could benefit from merging with virtual reality (VR) technologies, as these technologies are easily applicable, involving, and user-friendly. To date, it is unclear which relaxation technique using biofeedback combined with VR technology is the most effective. The study aimed to compare the effectiveness of brief VR-based biofeedback-assisted relaxation techniques including electroencephalographic biofeedback, mindfulness-based biofeedback, galvanic skin response biofeedback, and respiratory biofeedback. Forty-three healthy volunteers (age 34.7 ± 7.2 years), comprising 28 (65%) women and 15 (35%) men, were enrolled in the study. All the participants were exposed to four distinct relaxation sessions according to a computer-generated random sequence. The efficacy of relaxation methods was evaluated by examining psychological, physiological, and biochemical stress indicators. All VR-based relaxation techniques reduced salivary steroid hormone (i.e., cortisol, cortisone, and total glucocorticoid) levels and increased galvanic skin response values. Similarly, all interventions led to a significantly reduced subjectively perceived psychological strain level. Three out of the four interventions (i.e., electroencephalographic, respiratory, and galvanic skin response-based biofeedback relaxation sessions) resulted in a decreased self-reported fatigue level. We suggest that newly developed VR-based relaxations techniques are potential tools for stress reduction and might be particularly suitable for individuals who are not capable of adhering to a strict and time-consuming stress management intervention schedule.

The aim of this study was to determine the importance of high school students’ personal strengths use and the perceived school climate on their psychological functioning. The sample of 258 students from a gymnasium filled in measures for adolescent psychological functioning, strengths use and perceived school climate. Contrary to what was expected, the results revealed that personal strengths use did not moderate the relationship between students’ perceived school climate and their psychological functioning. However, both factors – perceived school climate and strengths use – independently of each other, significantly predicted students’ psychological functioning. Therefore, in order to achieve more positive developmental outcomes, it is not enough to create a good climate at school, it is also important to create opportunities for students to use their personal strengths.