Nanoparticles (NP) are organic or inorganic substances, the size of which ranges from 1 to 100 nm, and they possess specific properties which are different from those of the bulk materials in the macroscopic scale. In a recent decade, NP were widely applied in biomedicine as potential probes for imaging, drug-delivery systems and regenerative medicine. However, rapid development of nanotechnologies and their applications in clinical research have raised concerns about the adverse effects of NP on human health and environment. In the present review, special attention is paid to the fetal exposure to NP during the period of pregnancy. The ability to control the beneficial effects of NP and to avoid toxicity during treatment requires comprehensive knowledge about the distribution of NP in maternal body and possible penetration through the maternal-fetal barrier that might impair the embryogenesis. The initial in vivo and ex vivo studies imply that NP are able to cross the placental barrier, but the passage to the fetus depends on the size and the surface coating of NP as well as on the experimental model. The toxicity assays indicate that NP might induce adverse physiological effects and impede embryogenesis. The molecular transport mechanisms which are responsible for the transport of nanomaterials across the placental barrier are still poorly understood, and there is a high need for further studies in order to resolve the NP distribution patterns in the organism and to control the beneficial effects of NP applications during pregnancy without impeding the embryogenesis.

Background and Objective. Nanotechnology works with substances at a nanometer scale, and it offers many solutions for biomedicine. Nanoparticles (NPs) have been shown as effective agents for imaging, drug delivery, pathogen detection, etc. However, to date, NP toxicity is poorly known. The aim of our study was to investigate the embryotoxicity and teratogenicity of quantum dots (QDs) at the different stages of rat embryogenesis. Materials and Methods. Wistar rats were injected with CdSe/ZnS or CdTe QDs on the 6th, 13th, and 18th days of embryogenesis. Cyclophosphamide was chosen as a positive control of embryotoxicity. On the 21st day, the number of resorptions, weight, length, and external malformations of the embryos were estimated. Fluorescence spectroscopy and microscopy analysis were used to determine the accumulation of QDs in the tissues. Results. Exposure to cyclophosphamide during the pregnancy decreased the embryonic weight and length when compared with the control group and produced numerous malformations. The effects depended on the stage of embryogenesis. Meanwhile, QDs did not cause any embryotoxic or teratogenic effects. However, CdTe QDs induced necrosis in the tissues of the peritoneal cavity. The necrotic tissues contained QDs with altered spectroscopic properties. Spectroscopic and microscopic tissue examination revealed that QDs accumulated in the placenta, but no penetration to the embryonic tissues was observed. Conclusions. QDs did not cause any direct embryotoxic or teratogenic effects, but they had adverse effects on the maternal organism. The observed QD effects and the long-term accumulation of QDs in the maternal organism may increase the risk of adverse effects on embryo development.

Maternal undernutrition can affect offspring's physical status and various health parameters that might be transmittable across several generations. Many studies have focused on undernutrition throughout pregnancy, whereas maternal undernutrition prior to pregnancy is not sufficiently studied. The objective of our study was to explore the effects of food restriction prior to and during pregnancy on body weight and longevity of the second generation offspring. Adult female Wistar rats ("F0" generation) were 50% food restricted for one month prior to pregnancy (pre-pregnancy) or during pre-pregnancy and pregnancy. The third group was fed normally (control). The first generation offspring were normally fed until the 6 th month of age to produce the second generation offspring; namely, the first-generation female rats were mated with male breeders from outside the experiment. The second generation offspring thus obtained were observed until natural death (up to 36 months). Compared to the controls, the second-generation male offspring whose "grandmothers (F0 females)" undernourished only during pre-pregnancy were significantly heavier from the 8 th month of age, whereas no significant weight difference was found in the male offspring whose "grandmothers" were food-restricted during pre-pregnancy and pregnancy. Shorter lifespan was observed in the second-generation male offspring of "grandmothers" that were food-restricted either during pre-pregnancy or during pre-pregnancy and pregnancy. By contrast, no differences in body weight and lifespan were observed in all second-generation female offspring. In conclusion, maternal caloric restriction prior to pregnancy increases the body weight and shortens the longevity of the second-generation male offspring, indicating the sex-dependent transgenerational effect of maternal caloric restriction.

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Nevus with histopathologically confirmed nevomelanocytic atypia (dysplastic nevus) could not be distinguished from nevus without atypia using analyzed in vivo RCM features of melanocytic atypia. More accurate diagnostics by means of in vivo RCM needs further investigation on reflectance of single and nested cutaneous melanocytes in benign and malignant skin lesions.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects ionised water has on embryonic development using Wistar rat animal model. For that purpose, alkaline and acidic water was prepared with a domestic water ioniser. It was found that the concentrations of Cl–, SO42– ions increased in acidic water, while in alkaline water, Ca2+ concentration decreased and halogenated hydrocarbon concentrations exceeded permitted levels. The animals were given test alkaline and acidic water, as well as tap water as control. After three months, female rats were mated. On the 21st day of gestation, they were euthanized and subjected to Caesarean sections; the number of live and dead fetuses was recorded. The fetuses were examined for external or visceral malformations and skeletal abnormalities. The data showed that embryo death was higher in acidic and alkaline experimental groups in comparison to the control group. The fetuses in both test groups were significantly shorter than in the control group. Long bones of fetal hind and front limbs were shorter in the acidic group in comparison to the control group. Retardation of limb osteogenesis was expressed in the acidic group fetuses. Therefore, in our model, ionised water had a negative effect on the embryonic development.

Nutrition in uterus has a significant influence on the formation of metabolic phenotype in offspring generations. The objective of this study was to investigate maternal nutrition and the changes in body weight at few generations of rat offspring. Materials and methods. 12 maternal rats and 121 offspring rats were used in the study. Mature female Wistar rats were divided into 3  groups with respect to nutritional restriction (one control and two experimental groups). Rats from the first experimental group (1  EG) were 50  percent food-restricted one month prior and during the pregnancy; rats from the second experimental group (2 EG) were 50 percent food-restricted exclusively one month prior to the pregnancy. After weaning all the pups were fed with control diet, weighted weekly, observed and evaluated for the morphological indices of metabolic stress. Results and conclusions. Maternal nutritional restriction in pre-pregnancy and pregnancy may alter the physical status and behaviour of the offspring: the reactions differ in both sexes; the alterations depend on the time window of exposure. There were no weight-related differences between groups in body weight of female offspring rats during the all time periods of the study. The first generation 1 EG male offsprings were the heaviest; the tendency for a greater than control group weight was also observed at the second generation up till the early reproductive period. The 2nd generation 2 EG male rats were the heaviest and exhibited some evident markers of chronic diseases.

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