We study the vortex flow in swirl dryers across full scale designs and conditions. Three air flow regimes are related to the effects of friction and design features. The characteristics of deposits are vital to explain the evolution of the vortex. Friction reduces the swirl drastically and it has a major impact on the turbulence. Flow regime prediction facilitates the use of new control and scale-up criteria. a b s t r a c tThe structure of the vortex flow in swirl spray dryers is investigated after having fouled the walls with deposits typical of detergent manufacture. The range of Re and swirl intensity Ω characteristic of industry are studied using three counter-current units of varying scale and design. The friction with the deposits increases the flow turbulence kinetic energy and causes a drastic attenuation of the swirl and as a result, the vortex breaks down in the chamber forming recirculation regions (i.e. areas of reverse flow). Three flow regimes (1) no recirculation, (2) central and (3) annular recirculation have been identified depending on the swirl intensity. New control and scale up strategies are proposed for swirl dryers based in predicting the decay and the flow regime using the unit geometry (i.e. initial swirl intensity Ω i ) and experimental decay rates function of the coverage and thickness of deposits. The impact in design and numerical modelling must be stressed. Adequate prediction of the swirl is vital to study fouling and recirculation, which surely play an important part in the dispersion and aggregation of the solid phase. Current models have no means to replicate these phenomena, and yet, in this case neglecting the deposits and assuming smooth walls would result in (a) over-prediction of swirl velocity up to 40 À 186% (b) under-prediction of turbulent kinetic energy up to 67 À85% and (c) failure to recognise recirculation areas.

A new experimental method is outlined to study fouling in spray dryers and similar devices. In essence, it makes the deposits traceable so that one can quantify the material that comes off the walls, how long it remains there and how the deposits agglomerate with particles in the air. This paper investigates a countercurrent swirl spray dryer of detergent and provides sound evidence that fouling is a dynamic process: clusters form and break at the walls renewing an active layer of deposits. Remarkably, the wall generates >20% of the product and most of the large granules, and increases drastically the residence time of the powder. The assumptions of current numerical models are clearly invalid (i.e. particles rebound at the wall or deposit indefinitely). Several re-entrainment mechanisms and their times scales are identified in this work, and accordingly, a new general framework to describe fouling in spray dryers is proposed.

a b s t r a c tThis work studies the air flow in a large swirl counter-current dryer using sonic anemometry. Air velocity and turbulence fields are reported at isothermal conditions and in the absence of particles. In a tall-form unit the structure of the flow is largely influenced by the design of the exit. A contraction originates a central jet and suppresses the formation of recirculation zones despite the vortex acquires a high swirl intensity X (i.e. 1 < X < 2). Access to a full scale tower has permitted to: (a) identify asymmetries owed to the design of inlet and exhaust ducts, (b) present the first detailed turbulence data in production units, characterized by a highly anisotropic field and the axial decay of the turbulence kinetic energy, (c) study the flow stability, identifying the precession of the vortex core and oscillations at a constant Strouhal number and (d) study the impact that a rough wall has in the strength of the swirl. This work presents the first clear evidence of significant friction in spray dryers. The swirl intensity X decays exponentially in the dryer at a rate between 0.08 and 0.09, much higher than expected in pipe flow and independent of Re in the range 10 5 -2.2 Á 10 5 . Production dryers have a large characteristic wall roughness due the presence of deposits, which explains the stronger friction and the discrepancies found in the past between data at full scale or clean laboratory or pilot scale units. It is essential to address this phenomenon in current numerical models, which are validated on laboratory or pilot scale facilities and ignore the role of deposits, thus causing an overprediction of the tangential velocity above 30-40%.

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Fluidization is a prime example of complex granular flows driven by fluid-solid interactions. The interplay of gravity, particle-particle and fluid-particle forces leads to a rich spectrum of hydrodynamic behavior. A number of complex mathematical formulations exist to describe granular flows. At a macroscopic scale, Eulerian models based on the Kinetic Theory of Granular Flow (KTGF) have been successfully employed to simulate dilute and moderately dense systems, such as circulating fluidized bed reactors. However, their applications to dense flows are challenging, because sustained particle contacts are important. As solid fraction rises, the behavior of granular media responds dramatically to particle properties and changes in concentration. Lacking a coherent transition between formulations of dilute, dense and quasistatic flow behavior, kinetic models are incapable of describing how microstructure emerges and affects the rheology. The behavior of transitional granular flows, such as pulsed fluidized beds, for which the particulate phase transitions between the viscous and plastic regimes, are good reminders of this limitation. In recent years, tremendous effort has been devoted to finding new ways to describe the effects of sustained solids friction and dense flow rheology. This article provides a perspective on this matter from the viewpoint of gas-solid fluidization and discusses advances in describing the dilute-to-dense transition in a continuum framework. Four innovative approaches prevail to extend or supersede the existing kinetic theory: (i) including effective restitution coefficients, (ii) coupling local granular rheological correlations, 2 (iii) introducing rotational granular energy, and (iv) combining non-local laws. While their reliability is still far from that of a Eulerian-Lagrangian approach, they lay a promising foundation for developing a rigorous description of granular media that merges the classical frameworks of continuous fluid and soil mechanics. The progress of continuum formulations does not compete with multi-scale modeling platforms with an applied focus. Ultimately, combining both is a prerequisite to developing new solid stress models that will improve not only the performance of macroscopic models, but also our understanding of granular physics.

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